Figure 1.

Schematic illustration of the correlation between autophagy and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Basal autophagy levels are required for muscle homeostasis and for the maintenance of healthy myofibers. In DMD, muscle autophagy is impaired contributing to muscle degeneration. This autophagy inhibition is dependent on the iper-activation of Akt–mTOR axis. Treatments with rapamycin or low-protein diet, acting on Akt pathway, restore autophagy ameliorating DMD muscle phenotype and function. The impaired autophagy may also occur independently of Akt. Treatments with AMPK agonists, which increase AMPK activation, counteract the Akt-independent axes enhancing autophagy and inducing a positive effect in DMD muscle.