Table 1. Key Effects of Detrimental Prenatal and Postnatal Factors in Lung Development.

Data derived from multiple references. See text for details and individual references from bibliography.

	Model	Key Findings	Mechanisms
Prenatal Factors	Intra-amniotic,-uterine, - peritoneal endotoxin	↓ Alveolarization ↑ Surfactant ↓ Gas exchange Altered angiogenesis	↑ TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-8 ↓ Caveolin-1 expression ↑ TGF-β expression and signaling ↑ MMP expression Altered FGF signaling
	Intrauterine growth restriction	↓ Alveolarization and vascularization ↓ Surfactant ↓ Gas exchange Altered ECM composition	↓ Surfactant protein mRNA ↓ Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and VEGFR expression
	Maternal smoking	↓ Alveolarization ↑ AHR ↑ ASM thickness	↑ TGF-β ↑ Procollagen I and III mRNA expression ↑ Th2 cytokine responses Altered Wnt signaling
	Maternal Diabetes	↓ Alveolar type II cell differentiation ↓ Surfactant	↑ Oxidative stress ↑ Collagen I and III expression ↑ MMP expression ↓ Phosphatidylcholine levels
	Pollution	↑ Airway inflammation ↑ AHR ↑ Mucus secretion	↑ TNF-α, IL-1β, KC, MCP-1 ↑ Th2 cytokine responses
Postnatal Factors	Respiratory Support	↓ Alveolarization ↑ AHR ↑ ASM thickness ↑ ASM proliferation ↑ ECM remodeling ↓ Airway relaxation	↑ TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8 ↑ TGF-β expression and activity ↑ MMP/TIMP expression ↑ BDNF expression ↑ Myosin regulatory light chain phosphorylation ↓ cAMP and PGE2 levels
	Respiratory Infection	↑ Airway inflammation ↑ Mucus secretion ↑ AHR	↑ IL-13 and TNF-α ↑ Th2 responses mediated by IL-4Rα
	Allergens	↑ AHR ↑ ECM remodeling	↑ IL-4/IL-13 expression ↑ Mucus production
	Pollution	↑ AHR ↑ Epithelial-mesenchymal transition of airway epithelial cells Altered distal airway structure	↑ Oxidative stress ↓ Activity of glutathione-dependent detoxifying enzyme