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a) Gradient of the electric field squared (∇E2) when Joule heating is considered; b) particle trapping zones when Joule heating is considered; and c) particle trapping zones when Joule heating is neglected. Simulations with 1,500 V applied for 30 seconds in a channel filled with a buffer with σ0= 0.01 S/m, with a correction factor (c) of 200 for eqn. (12).
