Table 1.

Summary of immune, inflammatory and injury responses in fetus after chorioamnionitis

Tissue	Stimulus and animal model	Structural alteration	Immune alteration
Lung	IA LPS, IL-1 or U. parvum in Sheep, mouse, rabbit or monkey	↑ Surfactant lipids, surfactant associated proteins A,B,C [14, 16, 20, 31, 32].	↑ Recruited inflammatory cells Neutrophil and monocytic infiltration [52, 122]
		↑ Smooth muscle hypertrophy in the resistance arterioles and adventitial fibroblast proliferation [44]	↑ IL-1β, IL-8, GM-CSF, MCP-1 production [50–52, 122]
		↓ Alveolar number, alveolar septae [40, 49]	↑ TLR-2, TLR-4 expression [21]
		↓ Elastin and Caveolin expression [41, 55]	↓ Monocyte/ Macrophage response (tolerance) [60, 63, 65]
		↑Alveolar type II cell proliferation [18].
Skin	IA LPS or U. parvum in Sheep	Dermatitis [77, 78]	↑ IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α production [77, 78].
Thymus	IA LPS in Sheep	↓ Weight and corticomedullary ratio [98, 99].	↑CD3 + T-cells [98, 99]
			↓% FOXP3+ T-cells, MHC-II+ cells [98, 99].
Spleen / Lymph nodes	IA LPS, IL-1 or U. parvum in Sheep or monkey	↑ Size and hyperplasia reticulo-endothelial cells [34, 48, 108].	↑ % CD3, CD4, CD8 and γδ-T-cells [34, 48]. Activation of macrophages and neutrophils (acute exposure) [18, 108].
			↓%FOXP3+ T-cells / ↑ %Th17+ T-cells (early response) [20, 108].
			↑ %FOXP3+ T-cells/ ↓ %Th17+ T-cells (late response) [20].
Gut	IA LPS, IL-1 and U. parvum in sheep	↓Epithelial barrier integrity, proliferation, maturation and differentiation of enterocytes [54, 111, 112]	↑ %CD3, CD4 T-cells [111].
		↑ Villus atrophy and ↓, villus development [112]	↓%FOXP3+ T-cells [111].
Brain	IU LPS in Mouse, rabbit or Sheep	↑ microglia, astrocytes, disrupted axonal development and apoptosis [116, 117]	↑IL-1-B, IL-6 mRNA [114].
		↓Oligodendrocytes, neurons [117].	↑Microglial activation [12, 116, 117]
		↓ Dentritic cells [10, 115]
Blood	IA LPS or IL-1 in Sheep		↑ IL-6, IL-8, serum amyloid A3 [122, 129].
			↓ Neutrophils (early respose), and ↑ Neutrophils, platelets (late response) [108, 122]