TABLE 3.
Relationship between cognitive domains and gait variables: summary of main neuropsychological findings
| Study | Population | Cognitive domains evaluated | Gait assessment | Main findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hausdorff et al.49 (2005) | Older adults (n = 43) | Executive/memory. In addition, tapping and catching abilities were evaluated. | Quantitative gait assessment measures | Better catching but not tapping performance was associated with walking (↑ gait speed and ↓ gait variability). ↓ Gait variability was associated with better executive function |
| Springer et al.24 (2006) | Young adults (n = 19); older adults including fallers and nonfallers (n = 41) | Executive/attention, memory | Quantitative gait assessment | ↑ Gait variability measures were increased during DT only in the fallers. ↑ Gait variability measures correlated with worse executive function. |
| Coppin et al.50 (2006) | Older adults (n = 737) | Executive/attention | Gait velocity assessment | Poor executive functions were associated with ↓ gait speed during complex walking tasks. |
| Hausdorff et al.19 (2008) | Older adults (n = 228) | Executive/attention, memory, visuospatial | Quantitative gait assessment | ↑ Gait variability but not ↓ gait speed during DT correlated with worse executive/attention performance. |
| van Iersel et al.51 (2008) | Older adults (n = 100) | Executive/attention, memory | Quantitative gait assessment | Executive functions were associated with ↑ gait variability measures during the most demanding DT (animal naming). |
| Herman et al.5 (2010) | Older adults (n = 262) followed for 2 y | Executive/attention, memory, visuospatial, global intelligence | Quantitative gait assessment | Baseline poorer executive function and ↑ gait variability during DT predicted future falls over the 2-year follow-up period. |
| Mirelman et al.4 (2012) | Older adults (n = 256) followed for 5 y | Executive/attention, memory, visuospatial | Quantitative gait assessment, falls report | Baseline executive/attention performance and gait variability under DT predicted future falls. |
| Sheridan et al.28 (2003) | AD (n = 28) | Executive/attention | Quantitative gait assessment | ↑ Gait variability during DT correlated with worse executive/attention performance. |
| Persad et al.53 (2008) | MCI (n = 26); AD (n = 15); CS (n = 12) | Executive/attention, memory, visuospatial | Gait velocity assessment on walkways of increasing cognitive demand | AD and MCI subjects with executive dysfunction were slower than CS and MCI without executive dysfunction; executive functioning was associated with ↓ gait speed during the most demanding walkway. |
| Montero-Odasso et al.54 (2009) | MCI (n = 55) | Executive/attention | Gait velocity test | Working memory was associated with ↓ gait speed especially during DT. |
| Yogev et al.55 (2005) | PD (n = 30); CS (n = 28) | Executive/attention, memory | Quantitative gait assessment | Executive functions were associated with ↑ gait variability measures during DT. |
| Rochester et al.40 (2008) | PD (n = 130) | Executive | Quantitative gait assessment | ↓ Gait speed during DT was weakly associated with executive functioning. |
| Amboni et al.57 (2008) | PD with FOG (n = 13); PD without FOG (n = 15) | Executive function | FOG-Q | PD with FOG versus PD without FOG performed worse on executive testing with a direct relation between FOG severity and executive impairment. |
| Amboni et al.58 (2010) | PD with FOG (n = 13); PD without FOG (n = 15) followed for 2 y | Executive function | FOG-Q | PD with FOG versus PD without FOG displayed a worse progression of executive dysfunction over a 2-year follow-up period. |
| Naismith et al.59 (2010) | PD with different FOG severity (n = 31) | Executive function | FOG-Q | FOG symptoms were selectively associated with poorer performance on tasks of set-shifting. |
| Martin et al.52 (2013) | Older adults (n = 422) | Executive/attention, memory, visuospatial | Quantitative gait assessment | Poorer executive functions were associated with worse performance on most gait measures and ↑ gait variability measures; visuospatial abilities were associated with ↑ double support phase variability. |
| Uc et al.56 (2005) | PD (n = 76); older adults (n = 161) | Executive/attention, memory, visuospatial | Subitems stability and gait UPDRS III | Poorer visuospatial abilities and executive function were associated with worse gait and postural stability. |
| Domellof et al.62 (2011) | Newly diagnosed PD (n5103) | Executive/attention, memory, visuospatial, language | Subitems UPDRS III | Axial signs (gait and stability) were associated with worse visuospatial memory and visuospatial functioning. |
| Amboni et al.63 (2012)a | PD (n = 43) | Executive/attention, memory, visuospatial | Quantitative gait assessment | The stability factor was found to be strongly and directly correlated with visuospatial domain performance. |
| Nantel et al.61 (2012) | PD (n = 30) | Executive/attention, visuospatial | FOG-Q; alternating SIP | Visuospatial deficits correlated with all SIP freeze metrics, FOG-Q total score; executive function deficits correlated with FOG-Q, SIP arrhythmicity and duration of FOG episodes. |
| Verghese et al.9 (2007)a | Older adults (n = 427) followed for 5 y | Executive/attention, memory, general cognition | Quantitative gait assessment | Baseline rhythm factor was associated with memory decline; baseline pace factor was associated with decline on executive function; both baseline rhythm and variability factor were associated with later dementia. |
| Verghese et al.10 (2008)a | Amnestic MCI (n = 54); nonamnestic MCI (n = 62); CS (n = 295) | Executive/attention, memory, language | Quantitative gait assessment | Subjects with amnestic MCI had worse rhythm and variability scores than those with nonamnestic MCI and controls. Subjects with nonamnestic MCI had worse performance on the pace domain than the other 2 groups. |
| Watson et al.65 (2010) | Older adults (n = 909) followed for 5 y | Executive/attention, memory, global cognition | Gait velocity assessment | Baseline poorer performance in global function, memory and executive function were associated with greater gait speed decline per year. |
| Holtzer et al.60 (2012) | Nondemented older adults (n = 671) | Executive/attention, verbal IQ, memory | Quantitative gait assessment | Executive/attention and memory predicted speed during DT; memory predicted cadence during both ST and DT; executive/ attention was predictor for gait variability during both ST and DT. |
Criteria for paper selection: novelty of content, evaluation of both cognition and gait, English language.
DT, dual task; AD, Alzheimer’s disease; MCI, mild cognitive impairment; CS, control subjects; PD, Parkinson’s disease; FOG: freezing of gait; FOG-Q, FOG questionnaire; UPDRS III, Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale–Motor Function, Part III; SIP, stepping in place; IQ, intelligence quotient; ST, single task.
a
Factor analysis approach.