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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2015 Aug 1.
Published in final edited form as: Curr Opin Cell Biol. 2014 May 24;0:82–91. doi: 10.1016/j.ceb.2014.04.008

Figure 2.

Figure 2

Select technologies that have improved our understanding of the ERAD pathway. (i) In vivo site specific photocross-linking revealed the direct interaction of substrates with components of the Hrd1 complex. (ii) Variants of fluorescent proteins were adopted to analyze retrotranslocation in vivo. (iii) Bottom-up reconstitutions that recapitulate each step during the ERAD pathway have elucidated the mechanisms that lead to substrate recognition, ubiquitylation, retrotranslocation, and degradation. (iv) Top-down and systematic genetic and biochemical approaches have identified novel genetic and physical interactions with membrane-associated ERAD machineries.