Figure 2.

Schematic representation of the possible sites for intervention of CgA and its derived peptides in heart failure. CgA and its fragments could operate at two, non-exclusive, levels: systemic and local. At the systemic level, CgA may work together with other factors (catecholamines, ANGII, cytochines, chemochines, etc) in the stress response, as in the case of the neuroendocrine scenario activated in CHF. At the local (heart) level, systemic and/or intracardiac physical and chemical stimuli could trigger CgA processing to generate cardioactive peptides, i.e., VSs, CST, serpinin (modified from Angelone et al., 2012a).