Table 4.
Unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios of risk factors for childhood malnutrition: a case control study (n = 274)
| Variables | Crude odds ratio (95% CI) | p value | Adjusted odds ratio 1 (95% CI) | p value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mother’s educational level | ||||
| Primary and less | 3.09 (1.20-7.96) | 0.020 | 0.19 (0.02-1.61) | 0.303 |
| Secondary | 2.81 (1.52-5.18) | 0.001 | 2.00 (0.53-7.51) | 0.126 |
| Tertiary | 1.00 | |||
| Mother’s working status | ||||
| Housewife | 1.64 (1.00-2.67) | 0.049 | 0.61 (0.21-1.72) | 0.347 |
| Working | 1.00 | |||
| Household poverty status | ||||
| Poor | 3.15 (1.65-6.04) | 0.001 | 1.18 (0.28-4.89) | 0.822 |
| Low income | 2.27 (1.26-4.08) | 0.006 | 1.82 (0.59-5.68) | 0.301 |
| Non-poor | 1.00 | |||
| Number of children | ||||
| 3 persons and below | 1.00 | |||
| 4 persons and above | 2.02 (1.16-3.53) | 0.013 | 5.86 (1.96-17.55) | 0.002 |
| Child’s sex | ||||
| Female | 2.11 (1.30-3.43) | 0.030 | 1.42 (0.62-3.27) | 0.406 |
| Male | 1.00 | |||
| Household food security status | ||||
| Household food secure | 1.00 | |||
| Household food insecure | 0.93 (0.50-1.70) | 0.802 | 0.78 (0.28-2.19) | 0.632 |
| Individual food insecure | 2.10 (1.09-4.06) | 0.027 | 1.08 (0.30-3.87) | 0.908 |
| Child hunger | 19.92(4.55-87.32) | <0.001 | 16.38 (1.34-199.7) | 0.028 |
| Child’s dietary intake: | . | |||
| Kilocalories (kcal) | 0.993 (0.992-0.995) | <0.001 | 0.988 (0.98-0.99) | <0.001 |
| Protein (g) | 0.931 (0.91-0.95) | <0.001 | 1.06 (1.01-1.12) | 0.035 |
| Vitamin A (RE) | 0.998 (0.997-0.999) | <0.001 | 0.999 (0.997-1.00) | 0.045 |
| Iron (mg) | 0.83 (0.78-0.88) | <0.001 | 1.12 (0.98-1.28) | 0.091 |
| Frequency of child illness (fever/diarrhoea/flu) | ||||
| Every month | 3.83 (2.09-7.00) | <0.001 | 2.79 (1.06-7.31) | 0.037 |
| Once in 2 months | 1.67 (0.82-3.39) | 0.158 | 0.60 (0.17-2.18) | 0.438 |
| Rarely (>3 months) | 1.00 | |||
| Child’s birth weight | ||||
| Low birth weight | 6.37 (2.72-14.94) | <0.001 | 6.83 (1.62-28.89) | 0.009 |
| History of child’s worm infection (yes) | 2.27 (1.28-4.03) | 0.005 | 3.48 (1.25-9.70) | 0.017 |
| Mother’s personally own asset (yes) | 2.18 (1.33-3.57) | 0.002 | 0.84 (0.30-2.40) | 0.747 |
| BMI status of the mother | ||||
| Normal weight | 1.00 | |||
| Underweight | 6.34 (1.37-29.34) | 0.018 | 7.26 (0.65-80.78) | 0.107 |
| Overweight/obesity | 0.73 (0.44-1.20) | 0.216 | 0.48 (0.21-1.12) | 0.089 |
Note. case = moderate to severe malnourished preschool children with z-scores < −2SD from the median of WHO reference based on visits to health clinics of Terengganu, Malaysia between April- August 2012; control = child without malnutrition with z-scores between -2SD and +2SD, age- matched and selected from the same health clinic as case; sd = standard deviation; CI = confidence interval; primary education and less = attained less than 6 years of school; secondary education = attained 11 years of education; tertiary education = obtained certificate, diploma, first degree and higher degree qualifications at academic and professional fields; poor = income per capita ≤ RM198; low income = RM198 < income per capita ≤ RM357; non-poor = income per capita > RM357; low birth weight = birth weight < 2.5 kg; BMI = body mass index; normal weight = BMI 18.5-22.9 kg/m2; underweight = BMI < 18.5 kg/m2; overweight/obesity = BMI ≥ 23 kg/m2; significance considered when p < 0.05 and if the OR and aOR estimate did not cross the null for 95% CI; AOR1 = Adjusted odds ratios for mother’s education level, mother’s working status, household poverty status, child’s sex, dietary iron intake, mother’s personally own asset and mother’s BMI.