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Mechanisms contributing to PH in COPD. BMSC: bronchial smooth muscle cells, VSMC: vascular smooth muscle cells, VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor, ET-1: endothelin-1, NO: nitric oxide, PGI2: prostacyclin, TGF-β: tumor growth factor-β, PCWP: pulmonary capillary wedge pressure. Yellow: endothelium, pink: vascular smooth muscle cells blue/sand: respiratory wall [20]. Reproduced with permission.
