Table 3. Geometric Mean Maternal Prenatal (16 weeks) Concentrations of PFOS, PFOA, PFNA, PFHxS, and Me-PFOSA-AcOH (μg/L) According to Demographic, Perinatal and Lifestyle Factorsa.
| variables | PFOS |
PFOA |
PFNA |
PFHxS |
Me-PFOSA-AcOH |
||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N (%) | GM (95% CI) | GM ratio (95% CI) | GM (95% CI) | GM ratio (95% CI) | GM (95% CI) | GM ratio (95% CI) | GM (95% CI) | GM ratio (95% CI) | GM (95% CI) | GM ratio (95% CI) | |
| maternal age (years) | |||||||||||
| <25 | 40 (22) | 10.87 (9.16–12.9) | 0.8 (0.65–0.97)b | 4.89 (4.12–5.81) | 0.94 (0.77–1.14) | 0.73 (0.64–0.83) | 0.91 (0.78–1.05) | 1.02 (0.8–1.29) | 0.63 (0.48–0.83)b | 0.47 (0.38–0.57) | 1.12 (0.88–1.41) |
| >35 | 30 (16) | 14.94 (12.26–18.21) | 1.09 (0.87–1.37) | 6.77 (5.55–8.26) | 1.3 (1.04–1.62)b | 0.93 (0.8–1.07) | 1.15 (0.98–1.36) | 1.65 (1.26–2.16) | 1.02(0.75–1.38) | 0.43 (0.34–0.54) | 1.02 (0.78–1.32) |
| 25–34 | 112 (62) | 13.67 (12.34–15.14) | ref | 5.22 (4.71–5.79) | ref | 0.8 (0.75–0.87) | ref | 1.62 (1.41–1.87) | ref | 0.42 (0.37–0.47) | ref |
| race | |||||||||||
| non-hispanic black | 56 (31.1) | 10.85 (9.4–12.53) | 0.76 (0.64–0.9)b | 4.41 (3.82–5.1) | 0.75 (0.63–0.9)b | 0.73 (0.65–0.81) | 0.86 (0.76–0.98)b | 0.86 (0.72–1.03) | 0.47 (0.38–0.59)b | 0.46 (0.39–0.54) | 1.12 (0.91–1.38) |
| other | 10 (5.6) | 16.07 (11.43–22.59) | 1.12 (0.79–1.6) | 6.05 (4.3–8.53) | 1.03 (0.72–1.47) | 0.98 (0.76–1.26) | 1.17 (0.9–1.52) | 2.43 (1.58–3.74) | 1.34(0.85–2.09) | 0.51 (0.34–0.76) | 1.25 (0.83–1.89) |
| non-hispanic white | 114 (63.3) | 14.3 (12.93–15.82) | ref | 5.87 (5.3–6.5) | ref | 0.84 (0.78–0.9) | ref | 1.82 (1.6–2.07) | ref | 0.41 (0.36–0.46) | ref |
| household income | |||||||||||
| <$20 000 | 29 (16) | 9.44 (7.73–11.51) | 0.63 (0.49–0.81)b | 4.1 (3.35–5.03) | 0.7 (0.54–0.9)b | 0.64 (0.55–0.74) | 0.77 (0.64–0.93)b | 0.84 (0.64–1.1) | 0.49 (0.35–0.69)b | 0.48 (0.38–0.6) | 1.02 (0.76–1.36) |
| $20 000–$40 000 | 37 (20.6) | 13.29 (11.15–15.85) | 0.89 (0.71–1.13) | 5.35 (4.47–6.4) | 0.91 (0.72–1.15) | 0.84 (0.74–0.96) | 1.02 (0.86–1.21) | 1.4 (1.1–1.77) | 0.82 (0.59–1.12) | 0.43 (0.35–0.53) | 0.92 (0.7–1.21) |
| $40 000–$80 000 | 64 (35.6) | 13.98 (12.23–15.98) | 0.94 (0.77–1.15) | 5.69 (4.96–6.52) | 0.97 (0.79–1.19) | 0.86 (0.78–0.95) | 1.04 (0.9–1.21) | 1.72 (1.43–2.06) | 1 (0.76–1.32) | 0.38 (0.33–0.45) | 0.81 (0.64–1.03) |
| >$80 000 | 50 (27.8) | 14.87 (12.78–17.3) | ref | 5.89 (5.05–6.87) | ref | 0.83 (0.74–0.92) | ref | 1.71 (1.39–2.1) | ref | 0.47 (0.39–0.56) | ref |
| BMIc | |||||||||||
| obese (≥30 kg/m2) | 67 (36.8) | 11.45 (9.77–13.43) | 0.81 (0.66–1)b | 4.95 (4.22–5.82) | 0.88 (0.71–1.08) | 0.7 (0.63–0.79) | 0.81 (0.7–0.94)b | 1.22 (0.98–1.52) | 0.84 (0.63–1.11) | 0.44 (0.36–0.52) | 0.93 (0.73–1.17) |
| overweight (25– 29.9 kg/m2) | 47 (25.8) | 13.59 (11.89–15.54) | 0.97 (0.8–1.17) | 5.45 (4.75–6.24) | 0.96 (0.8–1.17) | 0.84 (0.76–0.92) | 0.96 (0.84–1.1) | 1.71 (1.42–2.06) | 1.17 (0.9–1.52) | 0.39 (0.34–0.46) | 0.83 (0.67–1.04) |
| normal (<24.9 kg/m2) | 66 (36.4) | 14.08 (12.32–16.08) | ref | 5.65 (4.93–6.46) | ref | 0.87 (0.79–0.96) | ref | 1.46 (1.21–1.76) | ref | 0.47 (0.4–0.55) | ref |
| breast feeding history | |||||||||||
| prev breast feed | 74 (41) | 11.85 (10.44–13.45) | 0.83 (0.71–0.98)b | 4.47 (3.95–5.06) | 0.73 (0.62–.86)b | 0.77 (0.7–0.85) | 0.93(0.82–1.05) | 1.34 (1.13–1.61) | 0.86 (0.69–1.09) | 0.43 (0.37–0.5) | 0.99 (0.82–1.2) |
| not prev breast feed | 108 (59) | 14.2 (12.78–15.76) | ref | 6.1 (5.5–6.75) | ref | 0.83 (0.77–0.9) | ref | 1.56 (1.35–1.8) | ref | 0.43 (0.38–0.49) | ref |
| education | |||||||||||
| <12 years | 12 (6.7) | 11.08 (8.07–15.23) | 0.81 (0.58–1.13) | 4.99 (3.62–6.88) | 0.92 (0.66–1.28) | 0.69 (0.55–0.87) | 0.84 (0.66–1.07) | 0.94 (0.61–1.45) | 0.59 (0.38–0.93)b | 0.51 (0.36–0.73) | 1.24 (0.85–1.8) |
| 12 years | 25 (13.9) | 11.77 (9.45–14.67) | 0.86 (0.68–1.09) | 5.24 (4.19–6.54) | 0.96 (0.76–1.23) | 0.8 (0.68–0.94) | 0.97 (0.82–1.16) | 1.14 (0.84–1.54) | 0.72 (0.52–1.00)b | 0.5 (0.39–0.64) | 1.2 (0.91–1.58) |
| >12 years | 143 (79.4) | 13.68 (12.48–15) | ref | 5.44 (4.96–5.97) | ref | 0.82 (0.77–0.88) | ref | 1.59 (1.4–1.8) | ref | 0.41 (0.37–0.46) | ref |
| gestational age | |||||||||||
| preterm (<37 weeks) | 14 (7.7) | 11.25 (8.39–15.09) | 0.84 (0.62–1.14) | 5.18 (3.85–6.96) | 0.96 (0.71–1.31) | 0.73 (0.59–0.91) | 0.9 (0.72–1.13) | 1.31 (0.87–1.97) | 0.89 (0.58–1.36) | 0.5 (0.36–0.7) | 1.18 (0.83–1.68) |
| term (≥37 weeks) | 168 (92.3) | 13.37 (12.28–14.55) | ref | 5.39 (4.95–5.87) | ref | 0.81 (0.76–0.86) | ref | 1.48 (1.32–1.67) | ref | 0.43 (0.39–0.47) | ref |
| serum cotinine (μg/L) | |||||||||||
| active smoker (≥3) | 14 (7.7) | 9.04 (6.76–12.07) | 0.68 (0.49–0.94)b | 4.76 (3.55–6.39) | 0.95 (0.68–1.32) | 0.66 (0.53–0.81) | 0.82 (0.64–1.04) | 1.06 (0.7–1.59) | 0.67 (0.42–1.06) | 0.43 (0.31–0.61) | 1.12 (0.76–1.63) |
| secondhand smoker (0.015–3) | 117 (64.3) | 13.76 (12.45–15.21) | 1.04 (0.86–1.24) | 5.61 (5.07–6.22) | 1.12 (0.93–1.34) | 0.83 (0.77–0.89) | 1.03 (0.9–1.18) | 1.48 (1.29–1.7) | 0.94 (0.73–1.22) | 0.45 (0.4–0.51) | 1.16 (0.94–1.43) |
| non smoker (<0.015) | 51 (28) | 13.28 (11.41–15.45) | ref | 5.03 (4.31–5.87) | ref | 0.8 (0.72–0.9) | ref | 1.57 (1.27–1.95) | ref | 0.39 (0.33–0.46) | ref |
| parity | |||||||||||
| >1 | 47 (25.8) | 11.37 (9.7–13.33) | 0.78 (0.64–0.96)b | 4.83 (4.14–5.64) | 0.74 (0.61–0.91)b | 0.75 (0.67–0.85) | 0.87 (0.75–1.01) | 1.31 (1.05–1.64) | 0.79 (0.6–1.05) | 0.52 (0.43–0.62) | 1.08 (0.85–1.36) |
| 1 | 57 (31.3) | 13.06 (11.31–15.08) | 0.9 (0.74–1.09) | 4.53 (3.94–5.21) | 0.7 (0.58–0.84)b | 0.77 (0.7–0.86) | 0.89 (0.78–1.03) | 1.36 (1.11–1.67) | 0.82 (0.63–1.07) | 0.5 (0.42–0.59) | 1.04 (0.84–1.3) |
| 0 | 78 (42.9) | 14.53 (12.85–16.43) | ref | 6.49 (5.76–7.32) | ref | 0.86 (0.79–0.95) | ref | 1.65 (1.39–1.97) | ref | 0.48 (0.42–0.55) | ref |
a
Ratios are the exponentiated beta coefficients from a linear regression model with the maternal concentrations as the outcome. Ratios represent the multiplicative difference in PFAS concentrations from the reference category. Thus, numeric estimates indicate that GM concentrations were higher (>1) or lower (<1) for the predictor (variable) in that category compared with the reference category. Each predictor was run in a separate model.
b
P < 0.05.
c
We excluded two underweight participants with BMI <18 kg/m2.