Table 3.
Main relevant pathophysiologic changes per study
| Cell/Organ System | Toxin | Main Observed Effect |
|---|---|---|
| (1) Endothelium | ||
| Dou, 200426 | IS | Inhibition proliferation and repair |
| Faure, 200628 | IS | Increase endothelial microparticle release |
| Dou, 200727 | IS | Induction ROS, inhibition glutathione |
| Ito, 201030 | IS | Increase endothelial/leukocyte interaction (adhesion) |
| Yu, 201133 | IS | Inhibition proliferation; increase senescence; increase ROS and decrease NO production |
| Itoh, 201229 | IS | Induction ROS |
| (2) Smooth muscle cells | ||
| Yamamoto, 200651 | IS | Increase proliferation |
| Chitalia, 201346 | IS | Generation tissue factor (linked to clot formation), tissue factor breakdown retarded |
| (3) Leukocytes | ||
| Schepers, 200731 | PCS | Activation oxidative burst |
| Ito, 201030 | IS | Increase endothelial/leukocyte interaction (adhesion) |
| (4) Whole vessels | ||
| Adijang, 200840 | IS | Increase aortic calcification and stiffness, expression osteoblast markers, and OATs |
| Adijang, 201041 | IS | Induction cell senescence |
| (5) Cardiac cells | ||
| Lekawanvijit, 201035 | IS | Cardiomyocyte proliferation, cardiac fibrosis, inflammation |
| (6) Whole heart | ||
| Yisireyili, 201349 | IS | Increase cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, cardiac fibrosis, oxidative stress |
| (7) Renal tubular cells | ||
| Bolati, 201138 | IS | Increase epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition |
| Sun, 201334 | IS, PCS | Enhanced expression cytokine and inflammatory genes |
| Sun, 201236 | IS, PCS | Activation RAAS and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, fibrosis, nephrosclerosis |
| Shimizu, 201237 | IS | Increase expression MCP-1 |
| Sun, 201239 | IS, PCS | Increase Klotho gene methylation, renal fibrosis |
| Watanabe, 201245 | PCS | Increase renal tubular damage |
| Shimizu, 201343 | IS | Induction mediators for fibrosis (TGF-β1 and Smad3) |
| Shimizu, 201347 | IS | Induction generation adhesion molecule (ICAM-1) |
| Bolati, 201350 | IS | Increased oxidative stress |
| (8) Whole kidneys | ||
| Adijang, 200840 | IS | Increase fibrosis |
| Shimizu, 201342 | IS | Increase angiotensinogen expression |
| (9) Hepatocytes | ||
| Odamaki, 200452 | IS | Increase albumin production |
| Tsujimoto, 201032 | IS | Inhibition metabolic clearance losartan |
| (10) Intestinal cells | ||
| Tsujimoto, 201248 | IS | Inhibition pumps involved in clearance of pravastatin |
| (11) Adipocytes | ||
| Koppe, 201344 | PCS | Increase insulin resistance, decrease lipogenesis, increase lipolysis, ectopic lipid redistribution |
IS, indoxyl sulfate; ROS, reactive oxygen species; NO, nitric oxide; PCS, p-cresyl sulfate; OATs, organic anion transporters; RAAS, renin angiotensin aldosterone system; MCP-1, monocyte endothelial chemotactic protein-1; TGF-β1, transforming growth factor-β1; ICAM-1, intercellular adhesion molecule-1.