Table 4.
Most important affected pathophysiologic mechanisms
| Affected Mediators | Effect | Toxin | Confirmed in Two or More Studies | Related to Inflammation | Related to Fibrosis |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| α-Smooth muscle actin36,38,40,49 | ↑ | IS, PCS | X | X | |
| Cytokine generation34,35 | ↑ | IS, PCS | X | X | |
| E-cadherin36,38 | ↓ | IS, PCS | X | X | |
| Nuclear Factor (erythroid-derived 2) -like 249,50 | ↓ | IS | X | X | |
| Extracellular-regulated kinase 1/244 | ↑ | PCS | X | ||
| Fibronectin36 | ↑ | IS, PCS | X | ||
| Heme oxygenase-149,50 | ↓ | IS | X | X | |
| Intercellular Adhesion Molecule-147 | ↑ | IS | X | ||
| Inflammatory genes34 | ↑ | IS, PCS | X | ||
| Insulin receptor substrate-144 | ↓ | PCS | X | ||
| Klotho39 | ↓ | IS, PCS | X | ||
| Mitogen-activated protein kinase: MEK 1/2; p3835 | ↑ | IS | X | ||
| Multidrug resistance-associated protein-248 | ↓ | IS | |||
| NADPH oxidase27,30,45 | ↑ | IS, PCS | X | X | |
| Nuclear Factor-κB35 | ↑ | IS | X | ||
| Organic Anion Transporters40,48 | ↓ | IS | X | ||
| Osteoblast-specific proteins40 | ↑ | IS | X | ||
| Phosphoinositide 3-kinase44 | ↓ | PCS | X | ||
| Protein kinase B/Akt44 | ↓ | PCS | X | ||
| Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system36 | ↑ | IS, PCS | X | X | |
| E-selectin30 | ↑ | IS | X | ||
| Senescence proteins41a | ↑ | IS | |||
| Smad2/3 and Smad436,43 | ↑ | IS, PCS | X | X | |
| Snail36 | ↑ | IS, PCS | X | ||
| Tissue factor46 | ↑ | IS | |||
| Transforming Growth Factor-β36,40,43,49 | ↑ | IS, PCS | X | X | |
| Zonula occludens-138 | ↓ | IS | X |
IS, indoxyl sulfate; PCS, p-cresyl sulfate.
a
Senescence proteins: senescence-associated β-galactosidase, 16INK4a, p21WAF1/CIP1, p53, and retinoblastoma protein.