Table 5.

Logistic Regression Parameter Estimates for Associations Between Child Language Disability and Type of Caregiver Discipline

Country	Nonviolent Discipline		Psychological Aggression		Physical Violence		Severe Physical Violence		Need to Punish Physically
	Wald χ2	OR	Wald χ2	OR	Wald χ2	OR	Wald χ2	OR	Wald χ2	OR
Albania	1.30	1.36	8.61	1.90*	4.33	1.38*	5.93	1.75*	1.25	1.47
Belize	4.89	.54*	4.49	1.41*	.24	.92	3.77	1.81	.37	.89
Bosnia – Herzegovina	1.89	.72	.39	1.13	1.69	1.27	1.72	1.58	10.78	2.30***
Cameroon	.01	.99	.14	1.04	.10	.97	.50	1.07	.54	.93
Central African Republic	2.33	1.16	1.92	.90	3.93	.87*	1.48	.91	19.11	.69***
Djibouti	.66	1.11	6.19	1.28*	2.15	.87	.91	.89	11.66	.68***
Georgia	1.45	.87	19.01	.65***	14.58	.69***	31.79	.48***	8.63	.63**
Ghana	.12	1.05	1.15	1.19	3.92	1.32*	5.25	1.52*	5.20	1.35*
Iraq	1.12	.88	1.36	.91	.00	1.00	7.28	.80**	.06	1.02
Jamaica	3.11	.69	.77	1.16	.00	1.00	1.64	.67	3.60	.73
Laos	.07	1.05	.06	1.04	1.52	1.24	.01	1.02	2.45	1.40
Macedonia	.58	1.12	.02	1.01	.62	.93	.97	.88	9.58	1.68**
Montenegro	.37	.80	9.57	.49**	.10	.93	.13	1.16	1.06	.49
Serbia	.39	1.10	.57	1.09	1.85	.86	5.41	.64*	2.63	1.32
Sierra Leone	4.90	1.31*	1.52	.89	3.01	.87	5.27	.80*	.03	1.02
Suriname	3.02	1.56	.00	1.00	.44	1.08	1.73	1.27	.30	.92
Yemen	.86	1.25	4.44	.67*	.34	1.10	1.05	.88	1.32	.86

Note. OR = Odds ratio for Language disability x Country interaction. Odds ratios > 1.00 indicate that caregivers of children with language disabilities are more likely than the grand mean across countries to report the use of the respective type of discipline. Odds ratios < 1.00 indicate that caregivers of children with language disabilities are less likely than the grand mean across countries to report the use of the respective type of discipline. Results from models including interactions are given in the text.

^*p < .05.

^**p < .01.

^***p < .001.