Table 2. Means (geometric means) and differences (percent differences) in type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular risk markers by breakfast frequency in 4,116 study participants.
| Risk Markers | Breakfast Frequency | p (Trend) | |||||||||
| Daily (n = 3,056) | Most Days (n = 450) | Some Days (n = 372) | Not Usually (n = 238) | Difference or Percent Difference(b) | |||||||
| Adjusted Mean | (95% CI) | Adjusted Mean | (95% CI) | Adjusted Mean | (95% CI) | Adjusted Mean | (95% CI) | Not Usually− Daily | (95% CI) | ||
| Fat mass index (kg/m5)a | 2.00 | (1.96–2.03) | 2.11 | (2.03–2.19) | 2.14 | (2.06–2.23) | 2.26 | (2.15–2.38) | 13.26b | (7.71–19.11) | <0.0001 |
| Sum of skinfolds (mm)a | 39.85 | (39.02–40.70) | 43.78 | (41.81–45.84) | 44.13 | (41.96–46.40) | 48.90 | (45.96–52.03) | 22.70b | (15.16–30.73) | <0.0001 |
| Leptin (ng/ml)a | 8.68 | (8.32–9.05) | 9.79 | (8.97–10.68) | 10.22 | (9.29–11.24) | 11.77 | (10.46–13.23) | 35.54b | (20.28–52.73) | <0.0001 |
| Insulin (mmol/l)a | 7.05 | (6.82–7.30) | 8.07 | (7.58–8.58) | 8.30 | (7.76–8.88) | 8.92 | (8.22–9.67) | 26.39b | (16.62–36.99) | <0.0001 |
| Insulin resistance (HOMA)a | 0.89 | (0.86–0.92) | 1.02 | (0.96–1.08) | 1.05 | (0.98–1.12) | 1.12 | (1.04–1.22) | 26.68b | (16.97–37.20) | <0.0001 |
| HbA1c (%)a | 5.23 | (5.21–5.24) | 5.23 | (5.20–5.26) | 5.26 | (5.23–5.30) | 5.29 | (5.25–5.33) | 1.21b | (0.38–2.04) | 0.001 |
| Glucose (mmol/l)a | 4.50 | (4.48–4.52) | 4.55 | (4.52–4.59) | 4.59 | (4.55–4.63) | 4.54 | (4.50–4.59) | 0.97b | (−0.04 to 1.99) | <0.0001 |
| C-reactive protein (mg/l)a | 0.47 | (0.45–0.50) | 0.56 | (0.50–0.64) | 0.55 | (0.48–0.63) | 0.68 | (0.57–0.80) | 42.43b | (19.92–69.17) | <0.0001 |
| Urate (mmol/l)a | 0.22 | (0.21–0.22) | 0.22 | (0.21–0.23) | 0.22 | (0.22–0.23) | 0.23 | (0.22–0.24) | 6.38b | (2.93–9.94) | <0.0001 |
| Triglycerides (mmol/l)a | 0.79 | (0.78–0.81) | 0.81 | (0.78–0.84) | 0.81 | (0.78–0.84) | 0.84 | (0.80–0.88) | 5.92b | (0.76–11.34) | 0.01 |
| Total cholesterol (mmol/l) | 4.57 | (4.54–4.60) | 4.53 | (4.46–4.61) | 4.52 | (4.44–4.60) | 4.60 | (4.50–4.70) | 0.04 | (−0.06 to 0.14) | 0.80 |
| LDL cholesterol (mmol/l) | 2.69 | (2.66–2.72) | 2.67 | (2.61–2.73) | 2.67 | (2.60–2.74) | 2.73 | (2.64–2.81) | 0.04 | (−0.05 to 0.13) | 0.78 |
| HDL cholesterol (mmol/l) | 1.53 | (1.51–1.54) | 1.50 | (1.47–1.53) | 1.48 | (1.45–1.52) | 1.49 | (1.45–1.53) | −0.03 | (−0.07 to 0.01) | 0.003 |
| Systolic BP (mmHg) | 104.5 | (104.0–105.0) | 105.5 | (104.5–106.5) | 105.7 | (104.6–106.8) | 105.4 | (104.0–106.7) | 0.86 | (−0.51 to 2.24) | 0.02 |
| Diastolic BP (mmHg) | 62.7 | (62.3–63.2) | 62.9 | (62.0–63.8) | 63.2 | (62.2–64.2) | 63.2 | (62.0–64.4) | 0.45 | (−0.77 to 1.66) | 0.28 |
Adjusted means (or geometric means for those with footnote a) from a multilevel model adjusted for age quartiles, month, ethnicity, and sex fitted as fixed effects and school fitted as a random effect. p (Trend) summarizes evidence for an ordered trend across the four breakfast frequency groups.
a
Log transformed variables. Geometric means are given for these variables; percent differences are given between children who reported not usually eating breakfast and children who reported eating breakfast daily.
b
Percent difference shown.
BP, blood pressure.