Table 3. Means (geometric means) and differences (percent differences) in type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular risk markers by breakfast frequency in 4,116 study participants: adjusted for adiposity markers.
| Risk Markers | Breakfast Frequency | p (Trend) | |||||||||
| Daily (n = 3,056) | Most Days (n = 450) | Some Days (n = 372) | Not Usually (n = 238) | Difference or Percent Difference(b) | |||||||
| Adjusted Mean | (95% CI) | Adjusted Mean | (95% CI) | Adjusted Mean | (95% CI) | Adjusted Mean | (95% CI) | Not usually− Daily | (95% CI) | ||
| Insulin (mmol/l)a | 7.18 | (6.95–7.89) | 7.89 | (7.45–8.36) | 7.98 | (7.50–8.49) | 8.27 | (7.67–8.91) | 15.19b | (7.00–24.01) | <0.0001 |
| Insulin resistance (HOMA)a | 0.90 | (0.87–0.99) | 0.99 | (0.94–1.05) | 1.01 | (0.95–1.07) | 1.04 | (0.97–1.12) | 15.66b | (7.48–24.46) | <0.0001 |
| HbA1c (%)a | 5.23 | (5.21–5.23) | 5.23 | (5.20–5.26) | 5.26 | (5.22–5.29) | 5.28 | (5.24–5.32) | 0.97b | (0.15–1.80) | 0.01 |
| Glucose (mmol/l)a | 4.50 | (4.48–4.55) | 4.55 | (4.51–4.59) | 4.59 | (4.55–4.63) | 4.54 | (4.49–4.59) | 0.84b | (−0.17 to 1.85) | <0.0001 |
| C-reactive protein (mg/l)a | 0.49 | (0.47–0.53) | 0.53 | (0.48–0.59) | 0.50 | (0.44–0.56) | 0.55 | (0.48–0.64) | 12.27b | (−3.40 to 30.48) | 0.16 |
| Urate (mmol/l)a | 0.217 | (0.21–0.22) | 0.218 | (0.21–0.22) | 0.220 | (0.21–0.23) | 0.224 | (0.22–0.23) | 3.52b | (0.30–6.84) | 0.02 |
| Triglycerides (mmol/l)a | 0.80 | (0.78–0.80) | 0.80 | (0.77–0.83) | 0.80 | (0.77–0.83) | 0.81 | (0.77–0.85) | 1.68b | (−3.09 to 6.68) | 0.64 |
| Total cholesterol (mmol/l) | 4.57 | (4.54–4.53) | 4.53 | (4.46–4.60) | 4.51 | (4.43–4.59) | 4.59 | (4.49–4.69) | 0.02 | (−0.08 to 0.12) | 0.50 |
| LDL cholesterol (mmol/l) | 2.69 | (2.66–2.66) | 2.66 | (2.60–2.73) | 2.66 | (2.59–2.73) | 2.70 | (2.62–2.79) | 0.01 | (−0.08 to 0.10) | 0.58 |
| HDL cholesterol (mmol/l) | 1.52 | (1.51–1.51) | 1.51 | (1.48–1.53) | 1.50 | (1.47–1.53) | 1.52 | (1.48–1.55) | −0.01 | (−0.05 to 0.03) | 0.18 |
| Systolic BP (mmHg) | 104.6 | (104.1–105.3) | 105.3 | (104.3–106.3) | 105.4 | (104.3–106.5) | 104.7 | (103.4–106.1) | 0.13 | (−1.22 to 1.48) | 0.25 |
| Diastolic BP (mmHg) | 62.9 | (62.4–62.8) | 62.8 | (61.8–63.7) | 62.9 | (61.9–63.9) | 62.7 | (61.5–63.9) | −0.18 | (−1.38 to 1.02) | 0.87 |
Adjusted means are the predicted means (or geometric means for those with footnote a) from a multilevel model adjusted for age quartiles, month, ethnicity, and sex fitted as fixed effects and school fitted as a random effect. p (Trend) summarizes evidence for an ordered trend across the four breakfast frequency groups.
a
Log transformed variables; geometric means are given for these variables. Percentage differences are given between children who reported not usually eating breakfast and children who reported eating breakfast daily.
b
Percent difference shown.
BP, blood pressure.