Table 1.
Summary of major comorbidities in COPD
| Comorbidity | Prevalence | Mechanism | Clinical impact |
|---|---|---|---|
| Anxiety/depression | 6%–80% | Shared risk factors, dyspnea, limited independence | Decreases quality of life Increases exacerbations Decreases survival |
| Heart failure | 5%–24% | Shared risk factors, systemic inflammation, dynamic hyperinflation | Decreases quality of life Increases exacerbations Possibly decreases survival |
| IHD | 16%–53% | Systemic inflammation, vascular endothelial dysfunction | Possibly decreases quality of life Decreases survival |
| Pulmonary hypertension | 10%–91% | Hypoxia, endothelial dysfunction, pulmonary arterial remodeling | Decreases survival |
| Lung cancer | 9%–17% | Shared risk factors, systemic inflammation (especially NF-κβ) | Decreases survival |
| Pulmonary fibrosis | 6% | Shared risk factors, systemic inflammation | Decreases survival |
| Metabolic syndrome | Systemic inflammation, insulin resistance, corticosteroid use | ||
| • Diabetes | 10%–25% | Decreases quality of life, decreases survival | |
| • Hypertension | 32%–55% | ||
| • Dyslipidemia | 36%–52% | Not established | |
| • Obesity | 23% | Not established | |
| Osteoporosis | 8%–69% | Shared risk factors, systemic inflammation, nutritional deficiencies, corticosteroid use, hypoxia | |
| GERD/peptic ulcer disease | 8%–62% | Chronic cough | Increases exacerbations Decreases survival |
| CKD | 2%–43% | Shared risk factors | Decreases survival |
Abbreviations: CKD, chronic kidney disease; COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; GERD, gastroesophageal reflux disease; IHD, ischemic heart disease; NF-κβ, nuclear factor κB.