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Directed Acyclic Graph Showing Gene-Environment Dependence by Confounding
Notation as in Figure 1, with U an unmeasured confounder. D and X are associated by confounding. For example, haplotype frequencies at CYP3A (A) vary by latitude (U), as does age at menarche (X). In this graph, U is not a confounder of D and Y; such confounders are omitted for simplicity.
