Table 1.
| STUDY | PARTICIPANTS | PRIMARY SEX-SPECIFIC FINDINGS |
|---|---|---|
| Fetus | ||
| Glynn & Sandman, 2012 | 190 Mother (83 female/107 male fetuses) | Relations between maternal cortisol and fetal response to vibroacoustic stimulation were stronger for females. Among females, maternal cortisol was predictive of fetal behavior in response to stimulation at an earlier age than among males. |
| Neonate | ||
| Ellman, Dunkel-Schetter, Hobel, Chicz-Demet, Glynn, & Sandman, 2008. | 158 Mothers (80 female/78 male neonates) | The association between fetal exposure to elevated maternal cortisol and placental CRH and delayed neuromuscular development was observed only among male neonates. |
| Infant | ||
| Sandman, Glynn & Davis, 2013 and Davis & Sandman, 2010 | 165 Mothers (60 female/65 male infants) | The association between exposures to elevated maternal cortisol early in gestation and impaired cognitive performance at 1-year of age was stronger among males. |
| Sandman, Glynn & Davis, 2013 and Sandman, Davis & Glynn, 2012 | 221 Mothers (103 female/118 male infants) | Congruence between exposure to maternal depression in the pre and postnatal environments was associated with advanced maturation of motor and mental abilities in 1-year-old infants. Effects were observed at an earlier age among female infants. |
| Sandman, Glynn & Davis, 2013 and Davis, Glynn, Dunkel-Schetter, Hobel, Chicz-Demet, & Sandman, 2005 | 248 Mothers (116 female/ 132 male infants) | Elevated placental CRH at 25 gestational weeks is associated with more fearful temperament and higher levels od distress behavior among female infants, but not male infants at 2 months of age. |
| Sandman, Glynn & Davis, 2013 and Davis, Glynn, Dunkel-Schetter, Hobel, Chicz-Demet, & Sandman, 2007 | 248 Mothers (116 female/132 male infants) | Increased maternal depressive symptomatology at 25 gestational weeks predicted more fearful temperament during infancy among girls, but not boys. |
| Grey, Davis, Sandman & Glynn, 2012 | 52 Mothers (27 female/25 male infants) | The positive association between breast milk cortisol and fearful infant temperament at 3 months of age was observed only among female infants. |
| Child | ||
| Sandman, Davis, Buss, & Glynn, 2011 | 35 Mothers (17 girls/ 18 boys) | Elevated pregnancy specific anxiety early in pregnancy is associated with reduced gray matter volumes. This effect is seen primarily in girls. |
| Buss, Davis, Hobel, & Sandman, 2011 | 89 Mothers (39 girls/ 50 boys) | Pregnancy-specific anxiety predicted executive function in girls, but not boys. |
| Sandman, Glynn & Davis, 2013 | 178 Mothers (98 girls/80 boys) | The relation between prenatal maternal cortisol and child anxiety was stronger among girls. |
| Buss, Davis, Shahbaba, Pruessner, Head & Sandman, 2012 | 65 Mothers (35 girls/ 30 boys) | Reduction in brain volumes in 6–9 year-old children exposed to elevated maternal cortisol early in gestation primarily was observed in girls. |
| Sandman, Glynn & Davis, 2013 | 100 Mothers (49 girls/ 51 boys) | The association between longer gestation and increased gray matter density is stronger among girls. |
Note: This table is adapted from Sandman, Glynn and Davis, 2013 and summarizes published data from this group that has evaluated sex-specific consequences of fetal exposure to maternal stress signals..