Table 2.
Molecules involved in angiogenesis post-brain injury
| Name | Role in angiogenesis | Expression level and induction time after ischemia | Cellular localization | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| VEGF | EC proliferation/migration; vascular permeability | Up; 1 h to 7 days | ECs; astrocytes; neurons; microglia/macrophages | [133, 134, 192–200] |
| VEGFR-1 (Flt-1) | Receptor of VEGF | Up; 48 h to 14 days | ECs | [133, 192, 197] |
| VEGFR-2 (Flk-1) | Receptor of VEGF | Up; 48 h to 7 days | ECs; neurons; microglia | [133, 195, 198] |
| PLGF | Ligand of VEGFR1; potentiating VEGF | Up; 3 days | Vessels | [201] |
| Neuropilins | Co-receptor of VEGF/PLGF | Up; 24 h to 28 days | ECs | [201, 202] |
| Angiopoietin-1/2 | Ligands of Tie2; vascular maturation and stabilization | Up; 1 h to 28 days | ECs; neurons | [132, 134, 135, 203, 204] |
| Tie1/2 | Vascular maturation and stabilization | Up 0 to 1 h→down→Up 3–14 days | ECs | [203, 205, 206] |
| PDGF-B | Pericyte recruitment; vascular stabilization | Up; hours to 7 days | ECs; neurons; macrophages | [207–209] |
| PDGFRβ | Receptor of PDGF-B | Up; 48 h to 14 days | Pericytes; neurons | [207–209] |
| Erythropoietin | EC proliferation | Up; 1–7 days | ECs; astrocytes; microglia | [210] |
| eNOS | EC proliferation/migration; vascular tone | Up; 1–7 days | ECs | [211] |
| TGFβ | Cellular migration; extracellular deposition | Up 12 h→down→up 7 days | Vessels; astrocytes; microglia | [212–215] |
| FGFs | EC growth | Up; 1–14 days | ECs; neurons; astrocytes; macrophages | [216–219] |
| Thrombospondins | Vessel stabilization | Up 1 h→down 1 day→up 3 days | ECs; neurons | [134] |