Table 2.
Effect of Training on Primary and Secondary Outcome Measures in the Intention-to-Treat Group
| Measure | Experimental Training N = 242
|
Active Control N = 245
|
Change Difference (95% CI) | F Value (df) | P-Value† | Effect Size‡ | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Baseline Mean ± SD (Range) | Change Mean (95% CI) | Baseline Mean ± SD (Range) | Change Mean (95% CI) | |||||
| Primary | ||||||||
|
| ||||||||
| Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status Auditory Memory/Attention, index score | 96.0 ± 13.0 (53.0–122.0) | +3.9 (2.7 to 5.1) | 96.6 ± 12.7 (66.0–135.0) | +1.8 (0.6–3.0) | +2.1 (0.4–3.9) | 5.781 (1, 442.3) | .02 | 0.23 |
| Secondary | ||||||||
|
| ||||||||
| Exercise performance | ||||||||
|
| ||||||||
| Processing speed, ms* | 116 ± 84 (29–493) | − 68 (− 78 to − 58) | 117 ± 84 (25–500) | − 8 (− 16–0) | − 60 (− 72 to − 47) | 84.264 (1, 440.5) | < .001 | 0.87 |
|
| ||||||||
| Neuropsychological | ||||||||
|
| ||||||||
| Overall memory, index score | 99.6 ± 14.0 (53.0–138.0) | +4.2 (2.8–5.6) | 100.2 ± 15.9 (60.0–145.0) | +1.0 (− 0.4–2.4) | +3.2 (1.2–5.1) | 9.798 (1, 442.2) | .002 | 0.30 |
|
| ||||||||
| Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, raw score | ||||||||
|
| ||||||||
| Total‡ | 40.4 ± 9.6 (15.0–65.0) | +1.2 (0.2–2.2) | 41.2 ± 10.4 (15.0–70.0) | − 1.0 (− 2.0–0.0) | +2.2 (0.7–3.7) | 8.568 (1, 442.8) | .004 | 0.28 |
|
| ||||||||
| Word list delayed recall | 6.6 ± 3.5 (0.0–15.0) | +0.6 (0.2–1.0) | 6.9 ± 6.7 (0.0–15.0) | 0.0 (− 0.4–0.4) | +0.6 (0.0–1.2) | 4.415 (1, 448.2) | .04 | 0.20 |
|
| ||||||||
| Rivermead Behavioral Memory Test, raw score | ||||||||
|
| ||||||||
| Immediate recall | 7.9 ± 3.1 (1.0–17.0) | +0.6 (0.1–1.1) | 7.9 ± 3.3 (1.0–17.0) | +0.5 (0.0–1.0) | +0.1 (− 0.5–0.7) | 0.080 (1, 462.6) | .78 | 0.03 |
|
| ||||||||
| Delayed recall | 6.4 ± 3.1 (0.0–16.5) | +0.7 (0.2–1.2) | 6.6 ± 3.3 (0.0–17.5) | +0.6 (0.2–1.0) | +0.1 (− 0.5–0.7) | 0.263 (1, 458.5) | .61 | 0.05 |
|
| ||||||||
| Wechsler Memory Scale, raw score | ||||||||
|
| ||||||||
| Digit span backwards | 7.3 ± 2.2 (2.0–14.0) | +0.6 (0.4–0.8) | 7.2 ± 2.3 (2.0–14.0) | +0.1 (− 0.1–0.3) | +0.5 (0.2–0.8) | 7.528 (1, 450.7) | .006 | 0.26 |
|
| ||||||||
| Letter-number sequencing | 9.6 ± 2.4 (2.0–16.0) | +0.6 (0.3–0.9) | 9.6 ± 2.7 (0.0–17.0) | +0.2 (− 0.1–0.5) | +0.4 (0.0–0.8) | 5.871 (1, 448.1) | .02 | 0.23 |
|
| ||||||||
| Participant-reported outcome | ||||||||
|
| ||||||||
| Cognitive Self-Report Questionnaire-25 total, raw score | 2.226 ± 0.408 (1.300–3.300) | − 0.069 (− 0.108 to − 0.030) | 2.213 ± 0.460 (0.80–3.200) | +0.025 (− 0.014–0.064) | − 0.094 (− 0.153 to − 0.035) | 11.865 (1, 445.1) | .001 | 0.33 |
*
Lower scores represent better performance.
†
P-value from training group (experimental treatment (ET) vs active control (AC))-by-time interaction.
‡
Effect size defined as Cohen d of the training group (ET vs AC)-by-time interaction.
SD = standard deviation; CI = confidence interval.