Table 3. Correlates of reproductive tract infections at the screening visit - bivariable and multivariable models.
| Vaginal Candida 1 (22.1%) | Any of syphilis, N. gonorrhoea, C. trachomatis or T. vaginalis 2 (17.0%) | HSV-2 (34.3%) | |||||||
| Unadjusted3 | Adjusted | Unadjusted3 | Adjusted | Unadjusted3 | Adjusted | ||||
| N = 430 | OR (CI) | OR (CI) | N = 430 | OR (CI) | OR (CI) | N = 429 | OR (CI) | OR (CI) | |
| Site | % | (p = <.001)4 | (p = <.001)4 | % | (p<.001) | % | (p<.001) | ||
| Kenya | 12.4 | Ref | Ref | 8.82 | Ref | 22.9 | Ref | ||
| Rwanda | 11.7 | 0.94 (0.38, 2.33) | 1.22 (0.48, 3.10) | 26.7 | 3.76 (1.72, 8.20) | 64.4 | 6.08 (3.20,11.55) | ||
| South Africa | 33.5 | 3.57 (2.08, 6.15) | 3.88 (2.22, 6.78) | 21.0 | 2.75 (1.46, 5.16) | 35.0 | 1.81 (1.14, 2.87) | ||
| Age category | (p = 0.944) | (p = 0.510) | (p<.001) | (p = 0.004) | |||||
| <18 years | 20.0 | Ref | 13.3 | Ref | 6.67 | Ref | Ref | ||
| 18–24 years | 23.5 | 1.23 (0.59, 2.57) | 20.1 | 1.64 (0.70, 3.82) | 22.1 | 3.98 (1.34,11.79) | 1.54 (0.48, 4.94) | ||
| 25–29 years | 22.1 | 1.14 (0.54, 2.40) | 17.1 | 1.34 (0.57, 3.19) | 43.6 | 10.81 (3.72,31.45) | 2.93 (0.90, 9.54) | ||
| 30 or more | 21.0 | 1.06 (0.46, 2.43) | 13.6 | 1.02 (0.38, 2.72) | 61.3 | 22.13 (7.30,67.12) | 4.97 (1.42,17.44) | ||
| Marital Status | (p = 0.254) | (p = 0.002) 4 | (p = 0.005)4 | (p = 0.002) | |||||
| Never married | 23.6 | Ref | 21.1 | Ref | Ref | 28.0 | Ref | ||
| Married | 22.0 | 0.91 (0.56, 1.49) | 8.67 | 0.35 (0.19, 0.68) | 0.31 (0.15, 0.67) | 39.6 | 1.68 (1.09, 2.59) | ||
| Sep/Div/Wid | 11.8 | 0.43 (0.15, 1.28) | 23.5 | 1.15 (0.49, 2.68) | 0.85 (0.29, 2.50) | 55.9 | 3.25 (1.56, 6.76) | ||
| Living at Current Address | (p = 0.422) | (p = 0.034) | (p = 0.045) | (p = 0.054) | (p = 0.003) | ||||
| 0–12 months | 19.2 | Ref | 24.2 | Ref | Ref | 42.4 | Ref | Ref | |
| >12 months | 23.0 | 1.25 (0.72, 2.20) | 14.8 | 0.54 (0.31, 0.94) | 0.51 (0.27, 0.98) | 31.8 | 0.63 (0.40, 1.00) | 0.43 (0.24, 0.75) | |
| Parity | (p = 0.104) | (p = 0.939) | (p = <.001) 4 | (p = 0.004) | |||||
| 0 | 27.5 | Ref | 16.1 | Ref | 13.4 | Ref | Ref | ||
| 1–2 | 20.3 | 0.67 (0.41, 1.09) | 17.5 | 1.11 (0.63, 1.94) | 42.9 | 4.84 (2.81, 8.32) | 2.89 (1.51, 5.54) | ||
| >2 | 15.6 | 0.49 (0.23, 1.05) | 17.2 | 1.08 (0.49, 2.36) | 54.0 | 7.56 (3.82,14.98) | 3.04 (1.29, 7.15) | ||
| Sex worker | (p = 0.073) | (p = 0.356) | (p = 0.066) | ||||||
| No | 23.0 | Ref | 16.5 | Ref | 33.1 | Ref | |||
| Yes | 10.0 | 0.37 (0.11, 1.25) | 23.3 | 1.54 (0.63, 3.74) | 50.0 | 2.02 (0.96, 4.26) | |||
| Lifetime sex partners | (p = 0.423) | (P-value = 0.035) | (p<.001) 4 | (p<.001)4 | |||||
| 1 | 24.1 | Ref | 14.3 | Ref | 12.6 | Ref | Ref | ||
| 2–3 | 23.6 | 0.97 (0.56, 1.68) | 13.6 | 0.95 (0.48, 1.85) | 35.1 | 3.74 (1.99, 7.06) | 2.76 (1.38, 5.52) | ||
| >3 | 18.1 | 0.70 (0.37, 1.30) | 24.4 | 1.94 (1.00, 3.77) | 52.0 | 7.50 (3.88,14.50) | 5.33 (2.58,10.99) | ||
| Products used inside vagina | (p = 0.113) | (p = 0.004) 5 | (p = 0.009)4 | (p = 0.012) | |||||
| None | 22.1 | Ref | 9.09 | Ref | Re | 25.5 | Ref | ||
| Water/fingers | 16.9 | 0.72 (0.40, 1.29) | 23.5 | 3.08 (1.56, 6.06) | 2.87 (1.33, 6.17) | 42.6 | 2.17 (1.32, 3.58) | ||
| Water and soap | 22.8 | 1.04 (0.54, 1.99) | 16.5 | 1.97 (0.88, 4.43) | 3.47 (1.37, 8.78) | 31.6 | 1.35 (0.74, 2.46) | ||
| Cloth/Substances | 32.8 | 1.72 (0.89, 3.32) | 23.0 | 2.98 (1.32, 6.70) | 3.34 (1.33, 8.38) | 41.0 | 2.03 (1.08, 3.80) | ||
| Early pregnancy 5 | (p<.001) | (p<.001) | (p = 0.945) | (p = 0.174) | |||||
| No | 19.2 | Ref | Ref | 17.0 | Ref | 35.5 | Ref | ||
| Yes | 40.0 | 2.81 (1.58, 5.00) | 2.98 (1.60, 5.55) | 16.7 | 0.97 (0.47, 2.02) | 26.7 | 0.66 (0.36, 1.22) | ||
| HIV | (p = 0.212) | (p = 0.069) | (p = 0.047) | (p<.001) | (p<.001) | ||||
| No | 22.6 | Ref | 16.1 | Ref | Ref | 30.9 | Ref | Ref | |
| Yes | 13.3 | 0.53 (0.18, 1.55) | 30.0 | 2.24 (0.98, 5.11) | 2.92 (1.04, 8.23) | 24/29 (82.8) | 10.73 (4.00,28.79) | 5.77 (2.03,16.42) | |
| BV | (p = 0.883) | (p<.001) | (p<.001) | (p = 0.093) | |||||
| Negative (0–3) | 24.0 | Ref | 9.62 | Ref | Ref | 29.8 | Ref | ||
| Intermediate (4–6) | 21.1 | 0.84 (0.36, 1.96) | 28.9 | 3.83 (1.65, 8.86) | 3.16 (1.26, 7.88) | 47.4 | 2.12 (1.05, 4.28) | ||
| Positive (7–10) | 22.3 | 0.91 (0.55, 1.50) | 23.6 | 2.91 (1.60, 5.29) | 3.14 (1.66, 5.94) | 35.8 | 1.31 (0.84, 2.06) | ||
| Ectopy of the cervix 6 | (p = 0.316) | (p = 0.002) | (p = 0.002) | (p = 0.009) | |||||
| No | 24.0 | Ref | 11.8 | Ref | Ref | 28.5 | Ref | ||
| Yes | 20.0 | 0.79 (0.50, 1.25) | 23.0 | 2.23 (1.33, 3.76) | 2.58 (1.39, 4.80) | 40.5 | 1.71 (1.14, 2.55) | ||
BV = bacterial vaginosis; HSV-2 = herpes simplex virus; PSA = prostate specific antigen; Ref = reference category; RTI = reproductive tract infection; Sep/Div/Wid = separated, divorced, or widowed.
1
Vaginal Candida as diagnosed by wet mount microscopy;
2
87 infections in 73 women;
3
Bolded p-values indicate significant associations at the level p≤0.100 in the bivariable analysis and were selected for multivariable modelling. Adjusted odd-ratios are only shown for factors which remained statistically significant at p≤0.050 level after stepwise deletion.
4
Associations remained statistically significant in the non-pregnant women group (N = 219).
5
Early pregnancy: gestation less than 14 weeks;
6
Ectopy = cervical ectopy; clinically observed and defined as No = absent, and Yes = small, moderate or large. OR: odds ratio; CI: confidence interval.