Table 3.
Summary of scientific evidence for the impact of phytosterols on carotenoid status and fat soluble vitamins
| Reference | Products | Vehicle | Subject Mean Age or range | Condition: Starting mean TC mM (range) | Dose g/day (free sterol/stanol equivalents) | Duration of study wks | Outcome | |
| Impact of phytosterols on vitamin A and carotenoid status | Impact of phytosterols on other fat soluble vitamins | |||||||
| [25] | C, D2, D3, D5 | Spread | Adults, 18–65 | <8 | 1.5–3.3 | 3.5 | ↓ absolute and lipid standardized levels of α- and β-carotene and lycopene. | |
| [178] | D1 | Spread, Butter | Postmenopausal women aged 50–55 | 5.5–8.0 | 3.2-D1 in spread; 2.4-D1 in butter | Margarine intervention-6 wks; butter interventio-5 wks | ↔ Serum retinol ↓ α- and β-carotene concentrations |
↔ Serum vitamin D ↔ lipid standardized α-tocopherol |
| [181] | D | Spread | Adults | Moderately hypercholesterolemic | 8 | ↔ retinol ↓ α- and β-carotenes |
↔ vitamin D ↔ ratio of α-tocopherol to cholesterol |
|
| [62] | D1, D2 | Spread | Adults | 5.4–7.5 | 2.3-D1; 2.2-D2 | 8 | ↓ β-carotene ↔ β-carotene ↔ α-carotene with or without lipid adjustment |
|
| [19] | C2 | Spread | Adults, aged 19–58 | <7.5 | 0.9, 1.6 and 3.3 | 3.6 | ↓ α and β carotene and lycopene concentrations reduced ↔ lipid-adjusted carotene levels |
↓ α-tocopherol concentrations reduced ↔ lipid standardized α tocopherol |
| [41] | D | Spread | Adults | Hypercholesterolemic | 1 g 3x/d (2 different formulations) or 2 g 3x/d | 8 | ↔ vitamin A | ↔ vitamin D |
| [20] | C2, C3 | Spread | Adults aged 18–62 | <8 | 0.8 | 9 | ↓ lycopene ↔ α- and β-carotene |
|
| [76] | C, D | Spread | Adults, mean age 49 | 4.8–7.0 | 2.0 | 4 | ↔ retinol ↔ α carotene or lycopene concentrations, with or without lipid adjustment. ↓ β-carotene decreased after each intervention, but not when lipid adjusted |
↔ vitamin D concentration with or without lipid adjustment. |
| [96] | D | Spread, Shortening | Adults aged 18–65 | <6.5 | 2.5 g/d-lunch or in 3 doses of 0.4-breakfast, 0.8-lunch and 1.3-dinner | 4 | ↔ retinol ↔ α-carotene ↓ lycopene and β-carotene after the 3x/d regime ↓ β-carotene by 1x/d regime ↔ in any of the lipid-adjusted concentrations |
↓ α-tocophorol after both the 1x and 3x/d regime 1x/d regime, ↔ in lipid-adjusted concentrations |
| [137] | D | Spread | Children, aged 6 | Healthy | 1.5 | 12 | ↓ β-carotene with and without lipid standardization | ↓ α-tocopherol but ↔ in lipid-adjusted concentration |
| [134] | D | Spread | 24 children aged 3–13; 4 parents; 16 healthy family members | Familial hypercholesterolemia | 2.2 | 12 | ↔ retinol ↓ α and β-carotenes with and without lipid-adjustment (measurements done only in children) |
|
| [39] | C | Spread | Adults 25–64 | >5.8 | 1.5 or 3.0 | 24 | ↔ retinol, α-carotene or β-carotene | |
| [170] | C | Spread, Salad Dressing | Healthy adults | 3.0, 6.0 or 9.0 | 8 | ↓ α and trans β-carotene reduced in the 9.0 g/day group, but all carotenoid values remained within the normal range | All fat soluble vitamins remained within normal range after treatments | |
| [38] | C | Spread | Adults, aged 21–75 | 3.4–5.0 | 1.1 or 2.2 | 5 | ↔ in serum retinol, zeaxanthin or cryptoxanthin ↓ trans β-carotene, α-carotene, lycopene and lutein all decreased ↓ lipid-adjusted trans β-carotene |
↔ α- or γ-tocopherol, 25 hydroxyvitamin D or phylloquinone |
| [40] | C | Yogurt-drink | Adults, aged 33–69 | Modertally hypercholesterolemic | 1 | 4 | ↔ vitamin A | ↔ vitamin E, ↑ vitamin D (probably as a result of increased skin synthesis of vitamin D due to the time of year) |
| [70] | C | Yogurt | Adults | Normocholesterolemic | 3 | 4 | ↓ β-carotene | ↑ lipid standardized tocopherol |
| [79] | C | Spread | Healthy adults | 1.8 | 3 | ↔ vitamin A ↓ β-carotene |
↔ vitamin E | |
| [173] | C, D | Spread | Adults | Hypercholesterolemic | 1.9-C 1.8-D | 3 | ↔ | ↔ |
| [81] | C | Adults aged 48 | Normocholesterolemic and hypercholesterolemic | 1.6 | 52 | ↓ lipid-adjusted α-and β-carotene | ↔ lipid-adjusted fat soluble vitamin concentration | |
| [71] | A2, C2 | Vegetable oil, partly filled milk | Men aged 29 | <5.2 | 2.2 | 1 | ↓ β-carotene bioavailability 57% with C2, 48% with A2; ↓ TRL-retinyl palmitate bioavailability 48% with C2, 32% with A2. No standardization to TAG because TRL-TAG pharmacokinetics were equivalent in all groups | ↓ α-tocopherol bioavailability 27% with C2, no efffect with A2 |
| [42] | A2 | Vegetable oil, partly filled milk | Adults, aged 60 | 7.0 | 1.2 or 1.6 | 4 wk/period | ↓ α- and β-carotene, lycopene, and lutein with 1.6 g dose only. ↔ lipid-adjusted α- and β-carotene, lycopene, β-cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin with either dose. ↓ lipid-adjusted % change in lutein with 1.6 g |
↓ α-tocopherol with both doses ↔ lipid-adjusted α-tocopherol with both doses |
See Table 1 for abbreviations. TAG, triacylglycerol; TRL, triacylglycerol-rich lipoprotein.