Table A. Results of Linear Regressions Evaluating the Association between Intrauterine Cocaine Exposure (IUCE) and NEPSY* Core Domain and Subtest Scores** before and after Covariate Control (Models 1-4a-d).
| NEPSY Measure | Model 1a | Model 2b | Model 3c | Model 4d |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Attention/Executive Functions | ||||
| Core Domain | M (SD)e; p-value | LSM (SE)f; p-value | LSM (SE); p-value | LSM (SE); p-value |
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| Heavier IUCE | 90.56 (11.89); 0.597 | 91.69 (2.77); 0.97 | 90.06 (2.78); 0.590 | 90.21 (2.64); 0.484 |
| Lighter IUCE | 87.72 (14.04); 0.072 | 87.92 (1.91); 0.171 | 88.22 (1.88); 0.163 | 87.16 (1.82); 0.037 |
| Unexposed | 92.14 (11.84) | 91.56 (1.71) | 91.99 (1.73) | 92.55 (1.68) |
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| IUCE main effect, p=0.20 | IUCE main effect, p=0.30 | IUCE main effect, p=0.37 | IUCE main effect, p=0.11 | |
| Model F (2, 133) = 1.65, p=0.20 | Model F (5, 130) = 0.95, p=0.45 | Model F (10, 124) = 2.15, p= 0.03 | Model F (12, 118)= 3.48, p< 0.001 | |
| R2=0.02 | R2=0.035 | R2=0.148 | R2=0.228 | |
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| 1a.Auditory Attention subtest | M (SD)e; p-value | LSM (SE)f; p-value | LSM (SE); p-value | LSM (SE); p-value |
|
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| Heavier IUCE | 9.08 (1.26); 0.855 | 9.21 (0.49); 0.637 | 9.01 (0.49); 0.872 | 9.11 (0.50); 0.717 |
| Lighter IUCE | 7.78 (2.74); 0.006 | 7.79 (0.34); 0.018 | 7.88 (0.34); 0.038 | 7.89 (0.35); 0.058 |
| Unexposed | 8.98 (2.09) | 8.92 (0.30) | 8.91 (0.31) | 8.87 (0.32) |
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| IUCE main effect, p=0.011 | IUCE main effect, p=0.014 | IUCE main effect, p=0.044 | IUCE main effect, p=0.044 | |
| Model F (2, 131) = 4.65, p= 0.011 | Model F (5, 128) = 2.01, p= 0.082 | Model F (10, 122) = 2.28, p= 0.018 | Model F (12, 118)= 2.13, p= 0.019 | |
| R2=0.066 | R2=0.073 | R2=0.157 | R2=0.176 | |
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| 1ai. Attention task (part 1 of Auditory Attention subtest) | M (SD)e; p-value | LSM (SE)f; p-value | LSM (SE); p-value | LSM (SE); p-value |
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| ||||
| Heavier IUCE | 9.40 (1.94); 0.950 | 9.76 (0.55), 0.465 | 9.66 (0.58), 0.506 | 9.87 (0.59), 0.319 |
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| Lighter IUCE | 7.89 (3.21); 0.002 | 7.95 (0.39), 0.016 | 8.09 (0.39), 0.05 | 8.06 (0.40), 0.083 |
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| Unexposed | 9.44 (2.18) | 9.25 (0.34) | 9.17 (0.36) | 9.00 (0.38) |
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| IUCE main effect, p=0.0005 | IUCE main effect, p=0.0076 | IUCE main effect, p=0.031 | IUCE main effect, p=0.0234 | |
| Model F (2, 131) =5.49, p=0.0051 | Model F (5, 128) =2.76, p=0.021 | Model F (10, 122) =2.02, p=0.037 | Model F (12, 120) =2.08, p=0.023 | |
| R2=0.077 | R2=0.097 | R2=0.142 | R2=0.172 | |
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| 2.Language Core Domain | M (SD)e; p-value | LSM (SE)f; p-value | LSM (SE); p-value | LSM (SE); p-value |
|
| ||||
| Heavier IUCE | 89.12 (13.17); 0.983 | 91.00 (3.30); 0.509 | 86.63 (2.87); 0.415 | 86.63 (2.87); 0.415 |
| Lighter IUCE | 86.12 (14.04); 0.395 | 87.02 (2.27); 0.689 | 87.46 (1.93); 0.434 | 87.46 (1.93); 0.434 |
| Unexposed | 89.19 (16.46) | 88.28 (2.02) | 89.63 (1.77) | 89.63 (1.77) |
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| IUCE main effect, p=0.669 | IUCE main effect, p=0.590 | IUCE main effect, p=0.652 | IUCE main effect, p=0.652 | |
| Model F (2, 134) = 0.40, p= 0.669 | Model F (5, 131) = 0.77, p= 0.570 | Model F (10, 125) = 6.96, p< 0.001 | Model F (10, 125) = 6.96, p< 0.001 | |
| R2 =0.006 | R2=0.029 | R2=0.358 | R2=0.358 | |
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| 3.Sensorimotor Core Domain | M (SD)e; p-value | LSM (SE)f; p-value | LSM (SE); p-value | LSM (SE); p-value |
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| Heavier IUCE | 80.33 (12.28); 0.437 | 80.22 (3.13); 0.481 | 77.12 (3.12); 0.065 | 75.45 (3.29); 0.017 |
| Lighter IUCE | 83.73 (14.06); 0.759 | 83.71 (2.13); 0.797 | 83.26 (2.07); 0.674 | 82.58 (2.14); 0.299 |
| Unexposed | 82.91 (14.27) | 82.96 (1.87) | 84.50 (1.87) | 85.86 (2.03) |
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| IUCE main effect, p=0.619 | IUCE main effect, p=0.638 | IUCE main effect, p=0.154 | IUCE main effect, p=0.054 | |
| Model F (2, 132) = 0.48, p= 0.619 | Model F (5, 129) = 0.19, p= 0.965 | Model F (10, 123) = 2.10, p= 0.029 | Model F (16, 111) = 1.64, p= 0.069 | |
| R2=0.007 | R2=0.007 | R2=0.146 | R2=0.192 | |
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| 4.Visuospatial Core Domain | M (SD)e; p-value | LSM (SE)f; p-value | LSM (SE); p-value | LSM (SE); p-value |
|
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| Heavier IUCE | 95.56 (15.79); 0.519 | 97.46 (3.61); 0.198 | 95.42 (3.37); 0.415 | 95.42 (3.37); 0.415 |
| Lighter IUCE | 91.09 (17.79); 0.545 | 92.07 (2.49); 0.897 | 92.51 (2.27); 0.855 | 92.51 (2.27); 0.855 |
| Unexposed | 93.03 (16.14) | 91.63 (2.20) | 91.92 (2.07) | 91.92 (2.07) |
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| IUCE main effect, p=0.554 | IUCE main effect, p=0.382 | IUCE main effect, p=0.697 | IUCE main effect, p=0.697 | |
| Model F (2, 134) = 0.59, p = 0.554 | Model F (5, 131) = 1.21, p = 0.310 | Model F (10, 125) = 4.64, p< 0.001 | Model F (10, 125) = 4.64, p< 0.001 | |
| R2 = 0.009 | R2=0.044 | R2=0.271 | R2=0.271 | |
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| 5.Memory/Learning Core Domain | M (SD)e; p-value | LSM (SE)f; p-value | LSM (SE); p-value | LSM (SE); p-value |
|
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| Heavier IUCE | 101.24 (19.38); 0.511 | 101.66 (3.53); 0.515 | 97.35 (3.40); 0.543 | 99.44 (3.41); 0.245 |
| Lighter IUCE | 95.07 (15.88); 0.242 | 94.76 (2.43); 0.233 | 95.09 (2.29); 0.136 | 95.68 (2.26); 0.268 |
| Unexposed | 98.73 (15.14) | 98.78 (2.16) | 100.01 (2.09) | 99.32 (2.07) |
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| IUCE main effect, p=0.271 | IUCE main effect, p=0.202 | IUCE main effect, p=0.324 | IUCE main effect, p=0.427 | |
| Model F (2, 134) = 1.32, p= 0.271 | Model F (5, 131) = 1.26, p= 0.285 | Model F (10, 125) = 3.56, p< 0.001 | Model F (11, 123) = 3.63, p< 0.001 | |
| R2 = 0.019 | R2=0.046 | R2=0.222 | R2=0.245 | |
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| 5a.Narrative Memory subtest | M (SD)e; p-value | LSM (SE)f; p-value | LSM (SE); p-value | LSM (SE); p-value |
|
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| Heavier IUCE | 9.44 (3.43); 0.646 | 8.80 (0.72); 0.464 | 8.02 (0.67); 0.057 | 8.11 (0.72); 0.087 |
| Lighter IUCE | 7.83 (3.33); 0.548 | 7.62 (0.50); 0.008 | 7.71 (0.45); 0.003 | 7.71 (0.47); 0.004 |
| Unexposed | 9.08 (3.34) | 9.47 (0.44) | 9.67 (0.42) | 9.69 (0.44) |
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| IUCE main effect, p=0.079 | IUCE main effect, p=0.026 | IUCE main effect, p=0.011 | IUCE main effect, p=0.014 | |
| Model F (2, 133) = 2.58, p= 0.079 | Model F (5, 130) = 2.22, p= 0.056 | Model F (10, 124) = 5.16, p< 0.001 | Model F (12, 118) = 4.36, p< 0.001 | |
| R2 = 0.037 | R2=0.079 | R2=0.294 | R2=0.336 | |
*
NEPSY=NEPSY: A Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment [71]
**
Regression results are presented for all 5 NEPSY core domains and for those subtests showing a significant or marginally significant (p < .10) association with IUCE.
a
Model 1 independent variable: IUCE only
b
Model 2 independent variables: IUCE plus prenatal exposure to tobacco, marijuana, and alcohol
c
Model 3 independent variables: Model 2 variables plus caregiver's education, child's sex, IQ, and custody arrangements
d
Model 4 independent variables: Model 3 variables plus any control variable in Table 1 or 2 changing the magnitude of the association between IUCE and NEPSY outcome ≥ 10%, [94]
e
M (SD) = arithmetic mean (standard deviation)
f
LSM (SE) = least square mean (standard error), adjusted for all variables in the model