Figure 1. Nonlinear electro-osmotic flows in isotropic and LC electrolytes.

(a) ICEO around a conductive particle in water. (b) and (c) LCEO caused by director distortions around a non-conductive particle with perpendicular (b) and tangential (c) anchoring. The electric field accumulates ions at the opposite sides of the particle. The separated charges are forced by the electric field into LCEO motion with directions shown by large curved arrows. The LCEO flows are quadrupolar in both (b) and (c), but of opposite directionality, of a puller (b) and pusher (c) type. (d) Dipolar symmetry of the director around a perpendicularly anchored particle breaks the fore-aft symmetry of LCEO flows, pumping the LC from right to left.