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| Gene | Mutation | Cellular effect | Reference(s) |
|---|---|---|---|
| RAS/BRAF | Hyperactivation | Activation of Ras/Raf/Mek/Erk pathway | (80,81) |
| EGFR/ERBB2 | Hyperactivation | Activation of MAPK, PI3K/Akt, mTOR and STAT | (82,83) |
| c-MET | Hyperactivation | Activation of MAPK, PI3K/Akt, mTOR and STAT | (84) |
| p53 | Suppression | Loss of cell cycle control and apoptosis | (85) |
| SMAD4 | Suppression | Suppression of TGF-beta downstream targets | (86) |
| APC | Suppression | Accumulation of β-catenin | (87) |
