Table 2.
Summary of studies assessing craving induction by substance-related cues in VR settings using virtual social interactions.
| Author (Year) | Na | Type of patientb | Hardwarec | Craving assessment (scale)d | Effects of VR social interactions on subjective craving | Effects of VR social interactions on physiological correlates of cravinge |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ALCOHOL | ||||||
| Bordnick et al. (2008) | 40 | AUD1 | HMD | 1-item VAS (0–100) | VR increased craving for alcohol related compared to neutral cues; Aversive cues (argument) elicited less craving than the other alcohol-related cues | |
| Cho et al. (2008) | 10 | AD2 | Screen | 1-item VAS (0–100) | Subjective craving was higher for cues with an avatar providing social pressure than without, regardless of the presence of alcohol; subjective craving differed in presence of alcohol cues and absence of the avatar, but not vice versa | |
| Lee et al. (2008) | 14 | AD3 | HMD | 1-item VAS (0–100) | Subjective craving in alcohol-dependent subjects was mainly induced by alcohol-related cues and did not differ w.r.t. presence/absence of social pressure; social pressure increased alcohol craving for control subjects, who did not show craving to alcohol-related cues | Increase in EEG alpha-power at right frontal sites |
| CANNABIS | ||||||
| Bordnick et al. (2009) | 20 | CUD4 | HMD | 1-item CCVAS (0–100) | VR increased craving for METH related compared to neutral cues | |
| COCAINE | ||||||
| Saladin et al. (2006) | 11 | CCD5 | HMD | 1-item VAS (0–100) | VR increased craving for cocaine related compared to neutral cues | HR increased for some cocaine-related cues, but did not reveal single differences between cues |
| NICOTINE | ||||||
| Bordnick et al. (2004) | 13 | ND | HMD | 1-item VAS (0–100) | VR increased craving for smoking related compared to neutral cues | |
| Bordnick et al. (2005) | 10 | ND | HMD | 1-item VAS (0–100) | VR increased craving for smoking related compared to neutral cues | SC increased during VR smoking-related, but not neutral cues |
| Carter et al. (2008) | 22 | ND6 | HMD | 24-item MDS (0–11) | VR increased craving for smoking related compared to neutral cues | |
| Ferrer-García et al. (2010) | 25 | Students7 | HMD | 1-item VAS (0–100) | All virtual environments induced significant craving, in high- or low-dependent subjects | |
| Garcìa-Rodrìguez et al. (2012) | 46 | Daily smokers7 | HMD | 1-item VAS (0–100) | VR increased craving for smoking related compared to neutral cues | HR and T increased during some but not all smoking related VR cues compared to neutral cues; SC did not differ across conditions |
| Garcìa-Rodrìguez et al. (2013) | 45 | Daily smokers7 | HMD | 1-item VAS (0–100) | Smoking a virtual cigarette increased craving compared to neutral cues | Smoking a virtual cigarette increased HR compared to neutral cues |
VR, virtual reality.
aNumber of participants assigned to experimental group of substance users.
bClinical or diagnostic characteristics of substance users according to the study’s authors, AUD, alcohol use disorder; AD, alcohol dependence; CCD, crack cocaine dependence; ND, nicotine dependence [1Meeting DSM-IV-TR criteria for alcohol abuse or dependence, 2Based on the Alcohol Dependence Scale (ADS), 3Abstinence for at least 3 weeks, 4Meeting DSM-IV-TR criteria for cannabis abuse or dependence, 5Meeting DSM-IV criteria for crack cocaine dependence, 6Meeting DSM-IV-TR criteria for nicotine dependence, 7Minimum smoking rate of 10 cigarettes per day].
cHMD, head mounted display; screen, computer screen placed in front of the participant.
dTool of assessment for subjectively reported craving levels before, during, and after cue exposure, AAS, Alcohol Attention Scale; VAS, visual analog scale; CCVAS, Cannabis Craving Visual Analog Scale; MDS, Multidimensional Scaling.
eEEG, electroencephalogram; HR, heart rate; SC, skin conductance; T, body temperature.