. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2015 Oct 1.

Published in final edited form as: Depress Anxiety. 2014 Aug 8;31(10):880–892. doi: 10.1002/da.22291

Table 1.

Summary of prior resting state functional connectivity studies of childhood stress/trauma, and adult PTSD symptoms. Studies included here assessed one or more key fear network nodes including the amygdala, hippocampus, and/or prefrontal cortex. Note that decreases in connectivity that originally have a negative sign reflect a loss of anticorrelation.

Childhood Stress/Trauma Exposure
Ref.	Seed or Network Analysis	Seed/Network Approach	Stress/Trauma Type	Subjects (n)	Main Findings (original connectivity sign)	Notes
¹³	Seed	Amygdala dACC PCC dmPFC	Childhood emotional maltreatment (CEM) – emotional abuse/neglect	Adults with CEM (44) Adults without CEM (44)	↓Amygdala- insula/hippocampu s (+) ↓Amygdala- precuneus (−) ↓dACC-vmPFC (+) ↓dACC-precuneus (−)	Psychiatric medication use not reported. Groups matched for psychopathology. Physical/sexual abuse excluded.
¹⁴	Seed	Amygdala	Maternal/family stress up to 1 year of age	Adolescent community sample (57)	↓Amygdala-vmPFC (+)	Effects found in females only and mediated by child cortisol levels at age 4.5 years.
¹⁵	Seed	Amygdala Hippocampus	Childhood maltreatment – all types combined	Adolescent community sample (64)	↓Amygdala-sgACC (+) ↓Hippocampus- sgACC (+)	Amygdala effects in females only, hippocampus effects in both sexes.
⁵⁷	Seed	Amygdala PCC	Childhood maltreatment (CM) – physical, sexual, or emotional abuse	Healthy adults with CM (12) Healthy adults without CM (9)	↓PCC-vmPFC (+) ↓PCC-ITC (+) ↑Amygdala-vmPFC (trend only)	A priori search regions were used. All subjects were free of current psychiatric illness. Four adults with CM reported past psychiatric illness.
¹⁶	Network	Graph theory	Childhood neglect (CN) – emotional/physical	Adult MDD with CN (18) Adult MDD without CN (20) Healthy adults without CN (20)	MDD with vs. without CN: ↓global connectivity in dl/vl/dmPFC, insula, caudate, thalamus, parahippocampal gyrus, amygdala, hippocampus	All MDD patients were receiving antidepressant medications. Primary analysis used global signal regression. Most CN-associated findings disappear when global signal regression was not used. Global connectivity = degree.
¹⁷	Network	Graph theory	Early life stress (ELS) such as abuse, neglect, caregiver death, accident	“Susceptible” adults with current or past MDD/PTSD and ELS (19) “Resilient” adults (no MDD/PTSD) with ELS (7) “Control” adults without ELS (12)	Susceptible vs. other groups: ↓local connectivity and ↑hub properties of amygdala, ↓hub properties of dACC, ↓local connectivity of left vlPFC Resilient vs. other groups: ↓global connectivity and hub properties of right vlPFC, ↓local connectivity of dACC, ↑local connectivity of mPFC, ↑global connectivity of hippocampus	All female sample. Only ↓hub properties of right vlPFC for the resilient group survives multiple comparison correction. Local connectivity = efficiency. Hub properties = betweenness centrality. Global connectivity = degree.
Adult PTSD
⁵⁸	Seed	PCC mPFC	Childhood abuse	PTSD (17) NTC (15)	↓PCC to mPFC, parietal cortex, middle temporal gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, insula, hippocampus, amygdala ↓mPFC to parietal cortex, PCC	All female sample. Thirteen PTSD subjects were receiving psychiatric medications.
⁶	Seed	Amygdala	Combat	PTSD (17) TEC (17)	↑Amygdala-insula (+)	All male sample. PTSD subjects were unmedicated at time of study.
⁷	Seed	Amygdala	Combat	PTSD (15) TEC (14)	↑Amygdala-insula (+) ↓Amygdala- hippocampus (+) ↓Amygdala- rostral/dorsal ACC (−)	A priori search regions were used. All male sample. Two PTSD subjects were taking trazodone.
⁸	Seed	PCC vmPFC Anterior insula	Combat	PTSD (15) TEC (15) NTC, community sample (15)	PTSD vs. TEC: ↑PCC-amygdala and -insula (−) ↑Insula-amygdala (+) ↑Insula- hippocampus (−) PTSD vs. NTC: ↓PCC- hippocampus (+) ↓vmPFC-rostral ACC (+)	A priori search regions were used. All male sample. Two PTSD subjects were taking trazodone. The two comparison groups were combined for primary analysis
¹⁰	Seed	Anterior hippocampus Posterior hippocampus	Various – interpersonal violence, accident, combat, childhood abuse, rape, natural disaster	PTSD (17) GAD (39) NTC (60)	PTSD vs. NTC: ↓Anterior hippocampus to dACC/pre-SMA (+) ↓Posterior hippocampus to PCC, PC, pgACC (+)	A priori search regions and global signal regression were used. Four PTSD subjects were receiving psychiatric medications. Posterior hippocampal findings were specific to PTSD.
⁹	Seed	Basolateral amygdala (BLA) Centromedial amygdala (CMA)	Combat	PTSD (20) TEC (22)	↓BLA- pgACC/dmPFC (−) ↓BLA-dACC (−) ↓BLA to IFG (+)	Twelve PTSD and two TEC subjects were receiving psychiatric medications.