Table 3.

The Effect of Family Planning on Next Generation Adult Poverty, by Race

	All Individuals		White	Nonwhite
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
A. Dependent Variable: Percent with Family Income < Poverty Line
Mean in Funded Counties Before Funding Began	11.5	11.5	8.18	16.4
After Family Planning	−0.28	−0.28	−0.50	−0.32
Program Funding Began	[0.12]	[0.18]	[0.14]	[0.28]
R2	0.05	0.06	0.02	0.03
B. Dependent Variable: Percent with Family income < Two Times the Poverty Line
Mean in Funded Counties Before Funding Began	27.9	27.9	20.4	38.1
After Family Planning	−0.68	−0.68	−0.97	−0.76
Program Funding Began	[0.18]	[0.18]	[0.21]	[0.34]
R2	0.13	0.13	0.06	0.05
PUMA × observation year FE	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Birth year FE	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
State × birth year FE	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Age and age2		Yes	Yes	Yes
PUMAs	1,268	1,268	1,268	1,268
Observations	328,403	328,403	320,634	298,216

Notes: We classify as “white” all individuals recorded in the census as belonging to no other racial group and not being Hispanic, while “nonwhite” comprises all other individuals. There were 2,072 PUMAs in the fifty US states in 2000. Following population displacement in Louisiana due to Hurricane Katrina, three PUMAs (1801, 1802, and 1905) were combined, and we merge these PUMAs together throughout the entire 2000–2011 sample period. Additionally, we drop PUMA 5423 in Los Angeles because it has few white residents, for none of whom poverty status is recorded. Our final sample consists of 1,268 PUMAs whose boundaries include all or part of county in which an family planning grant began between 1965 and 1973 and in which poverty status was measured for at least one white and at least one nonwhite resident age 20–59 and born 1946–1980 in each of the eight years of observation (yielding 10,144 unique combinations of PUMA × year of observation). This figure of 1,268 PUMAs exceeds the tally of 654 counties with a grant because, while a single PUMA may span several counties, so too may a single county span several PUMAs. Finally, we average poverty status across all individuals, and separately by race for those who reside in the same PUMA, share the same year of birth, and are observed in the same year. The units of analysis are 328,403 PUMA × year of birth × year of observation cells. Not every cell contains both white and nonwhite individuals for whom poverty status is recorded, so the actual number of units is slightly smaller for the race-specific specifications (3) and (4). Heteroskedasticity-robust standard errors clustered by PUMA and observation year are presented beneath each estimate in brackets. The mean in funded counties before funding began is the average across individuals born two years prior to funding to those born in the year of funding. Estimates are not weighted. Source: 2000 US Decennial Census and 2005–2011 American Community Surveys.