Table 2. Recent functional neuroimaging (fMRI, MEG, EEG) studies of individuals with prenatal alcohol exposure.

Brain region	Modality	Findings	References
Whole Brain	fMRI	• ↓ Baseline functional connectivity  ↓ Deactivation of default mode network during in dysmorphic group only	• Santhanam et al. [59]
		• ↓ Interhemispheric connectivity during resting state	• Wozniak et al. [60]
		• Abnormal functional connectivity during resting state:  ↑ characteristic path length  ↓ network global efficiency	• Wozniak et al. [61]
Frontal	EEG	• Slower P2 latencies during go/no-go task  ↓ FN400 amplitude on continuous recognition memory task	• Burden et al. [78]
	MEG	• Difference in gamma power in R frontal area during saccades	• Stephen et al. [42]
	fMRI	• ↑ Bilateral middle frontal and L superior frontal activity during SWM  ↑ L middle frontal activity during SWM vs. FHP	• Norman et al. [49]
		• ↑ Activity in R inferior frontal, middle frontal, paracentral and precentral regions during SWM vs. ADHD	• Malisza et al. [46]
		• ↓ Activity in bilateral anterior cingulate, R orbitofrontal and R frontal pole during SWM vs. MAA	• Roussotte et al. [79]
		• ↑ Activity in anterior cingulate and R medial frontal gyrus during go/no-go task  ↓ Precentral activity on cued trials during go/no-go task	• O'Brien et al. [44]
		• ↑ L dorso-prefrontal activity during working memory in non-syndromal children vs. both FAS/pFAS and control  ↓ Activity in Broca's area during working memory in FAS/pFAS vs. both control and non-syndromal children	• Diwadkar et al. [54]
		• Global efficiency during resting state positively correlates to cortical thickness in frontal region	• Wozniak et al. [61]
Parietal	MEG	• Difference in gamma power in R parietal area during saccades	• Stephen et al. [42]
	fMRI	• ↑ L precuneus, superior parietal and R superior parietal activity during SWM  ↑ L posterior cingulate, bilateral postcentral, precuneus and R inferior parietal activity during SWM vs. ADHD	• Malisza et al. [46]
		• ↑ Precuneus activity during SWM vs. FHP	• Norman et al. [49]
		• ↑ Activity in L precuneus and cingulate gyrus during go/no-go task  ↓ L postcentral activity on cued trials during go/no-go task	• O'Brien et al. [44]
		• Global efficiency during resting state positively correlates to cortical thickness in parietal region	• Wozniak et al. [61]
Temporal	SPECT	• ↓ Tracer activity bilaterally	• Codreanu et al. [80]
	MEG	• Delayed latency of M100 and M200 in bilateral superior temporal gyrus during auditory processing	• Stephen et al. [40]
	fMRI	• ↓ Activity in L middle temporal, sub-gyral, parahippocampal and bilateral superior temporal regions during SWM  ↑ Activity in R parahippocampal, R middle temporal, bilateral superior temporal and fusiform during SWM vs. ADHD	• Malisza et al. [46]
		• Global efficiency during resting state positively correlates to cortical thickness	• Wozniak et al. [61]
Occipital	MEG	• Delayed response latency of M100 during visual processing	• Coffman et al. [71]
		• Difference in gamma power in L occipital-temporal area during saccades	• Stephen et al. [42]
	fMRI	• ↑ L lingual and cuneus activity during SWM	• Norman et al. [49]
		• ↓ L lingual and inferior occipital activity during SWM	• Malisza et al. [46]
		• ↑ Cuneus activity during SWM vs. both control1 and FHP2	• Malisza1 et al. [46];  Norman2 et al. [49]
		• ↑ L cuneus and R middle occipital activity during SWM vs. ADHD	• Malisza et al. [46]
		• ↓ Activity in L precuneus vs. MAA	• Roussotte et al. [79]
Insula	fMRI	• ↑ Activity during SWM vs. control1, FHP1, and ADHD2	• Norman1 et al. [49];  Malisza2 et al. [46]
		• ↓ Activity in R insula during SWM	• Malisza et al. [46]
		• ↓ R insula during SWM vs. MAA	• Roussotte et al. [79]
Cerebellum	fMRI	• ↓ Culmen activity during SWM  ↑ Activity in R culmen during SWM vs. ADHD	• Malisza et al. [46]
		• ↑ Activity during working memory in FAS/pFAS vs. both control and non-syndromal children	• Diwadkar et al. [54]
Basal Ganglia	SPECT	• ↓ Tracer activity bilaterally	• Codreanu et al. [80]
	fMRI	• ↑ Activity in L lentiform nucleus during SWM	• Norman et al. [49]
		• ↑ Activity in R lateral globus pallidus during SWM  ↑ R claustrum activity during SWM vs. ADHD	• Malisza et al. [46]
		• ↓ Activity in bilateral caudate and putamen during SWM vs. MAA	• Roussotte et al. [79]
		• ↓ Functional connectivity between caudate and lateral prefrontal subregions during SWM  ↓ Functional connectivity between caudate and R medial temporal region during SWM  ↑ Functional connectivity between putamen, superior and inferior frontal regions during SWM	• Roussotte et al. [81]
		• ↑ L striatum activity during working memory in non-syndromal children vs. both FAS/pFAS and control	• Diwadkar et al. [54]
Diencephalon	PET	• ↓ Tracer activity in bilateral thalami	• Codreanu et al. [80]
	fMRI	• ↓ L thalamus activity during SWM  ↑ Bilateral thalamus activity during SWM vs. ADHD	• Malisza et al. [46]
Amygdala	fMRI	• ↓ R amygdala activity during SWM	• Malisza et al. [46]
Midbrain	fMRI	• ↓ Brainstem and L red nucleus activity during SWM  ↑ R red nucleus activity during SWM	• Malisza et al. [46]

If no contrast group is specified, findings show differences in individuals with prenatal alcohol exposure relative to non-exposed controls

L left, R right, EEG electroencephalography, PET positron emission tomography, fMRI functional magnetic resonance imaging, MEG magnetoencephalography, SPECT single-photon emission computed tomography, FHP non-exposed contrast group with a positive family history of alcoholism, ADHD non-exposed contrast group with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, MAA contrast group with prenatal exposure to methamphetamine and alcohol, FAS Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, pFAS = partial Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, SWM = spatial working memory task