Table 1. Gender differences in academic surgery.

Author	Year	Participants	Type of study	Study objective	Findings
Cochran	2013	Senior surgical residents and early career surgical faculty members	Survey	To test the hypothesis than female surgeons perceive different barriers to academic careers relative to their male colleagues	Women experience gender as a barrier to develop a career in academic surgery.
Sexton	2012	Member of American Association of Medical Colleges	Cohort study	To examined the trends for gender-based advancement in academic surgery	The percentage of full professors in surgery who are women is increasing at a rate disproportionately slower than the increase in female medical students and surgery residents.
Prichard	2011	Non-consultant hospital doctors	Survey	To investigate differences in attitudes and practices of male and female junior doctors in the practice of undergraduate teaching.	No significant differences between the genders regarding the self-reported quantity of teaching provided to undergraduates. Male and female doctors have similar attitudes toward, and practices in, voluntary undergraduate teaching.
Zhuge	2011		Review	To analyze the factors that contribute to the glass ceiling phenomenon	Traditional gender roles, manifestations of sexism in the medical environment, and lack of effective mentors make women advance more slowly than men in academic surgery.
Morton	2007	Women and men on a professional society or journal editorial board	Survey	To quantify the number of women in this boards	Women's representation on societies and editorial boards does not always reflect their presence in medical specialties. 83% of board members were men, and occupied >80% of top leadership positions.
Hoover	2006		Editorial	To identify factors behind gender inequities in academic surgery	Underrepresentation of women at all levels of academic surgery; importance of mentoring.
Klingensmith	2006	Members of the Association for Surgical Education	Cohort study	To determine whether or not educational scholarship is a pathway to academic promotion	Overrepresentation of male in academic surgery (82 vs 18%). Women seek advanced training in educational scholarship in greater proportions than men. Academic promotion occurs for individuals with focus on education.
Mendoza	2004	Members of the Association of Surgical Education and the Association of Program directors in Surgery	Survey	To assess academic preparation and scholarly activity of educators in surgical departments	Professional educators provide support needed to meet the growing demands and requirements of surgical education. Predominance of women involved in education.
Risberg	2003	Physicians involved in medical teaching	Prospective cohort	To investigate gender awareness among physician teachers	There is an interaction between physician teachers' gender and specialty. Male physicians from the surgical group assessed gender less important than female physicians in professional relationship. No significant differences between specialty groups among women.
Flannery	2002		Review		Difficulties for women to progress in academic promotion. More women involved in clinical teaching.
Jonasson	2002	Members of several American surgical societies	Cohort study	To assess the status of women in leadership positions in surgery	Underrepresentation of women in the major American societies and organizations, and in higher levels of academic departments of surgery.
Tesch	1995	American physician, AAMC database	Survey	To explain the fact that the percentage of women members of medical school faculty with professor rank is lower than men	Women physician medical school faculty are promoted more slowly than equal qualified men.