Table 1. Summary of Included Study Characteristics and Findings.
Author, Year | Setting | Participants | Randomized; Analyzed | Intervention Description | Theoretical Basis | AttentionControlled | Framework Classification* | Summary of Findings and Follow-up | Outcomes Contributed toMeta-Analysis |
[22] Sahler, 2013 | Multiple academic centers, USA | Mothers of children recently diagnosed with cancer; mean age 37; 43% white, 43% Hispanic | 309; 191 | 8 weekly, 1-hr individual manualized, problem-solving skills training sessions | Five-step cognitive behavioral intervention designed to empower individuals through use of coping strategies and skills | Yes; non-directive support and reflective listening | Trauma, Directed, Specific, Universal | Continued, significant improvements in problem-solving skills, mood, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress at 3 months follow-up compared to non-directive support control | Depression, Stress |
[23] Rose, 2013 | Large University, USA | Volunteer, reimbursed graduate students with score of 16 or greater on Perceived Stress Scale; 50% male; 32% Asian | 66; 59 | 6 weekly, 40-min, self-guided, computer-based, virtual resiliency training and homework/practice assignments with weekly calls/emails | Stress management training, cognitive behavioral approaches including thought activities and cognitive flexibility | Yes; stress-related videos and readings; with reminder emails/phone calls | General, Directed, Broad, Universal | Immediately post-test, improved amount of and control over stress in intervention group compared to educational attention control; intervention was rated as useful | Resilience, Stress |
[24] Varker, 2012 | Australian community | Compensated community volunteers; age 28; 56% female | 82; 78 | Single, 40 minute group session of stress inoculation training; included desensitization to car crash images and applied tension techniques | Stress inoculation training based on current understanding of PTSD | Yes; single session of pragmatic accident management training | Trauma, Directed, Specific, Universal | Analogue trial showed no significant difference in post-video distress but some improvement in affect at 1 month follow-up in MANOVA analysis | Depression, Stress |
[12], [25] Songprakun, 2012 | Outpatient psych hospital in Thailand | Moderately depressed Thai patients; age 42; 73% female | 56; 53 | 8-week, resilience-focused self-help guide book with readings, homework, and weekly phone calls | Cognitive behavioral basis focusing on 4 resilience concepts to deal with depression | No; standard depression care only | General, Directed, Specific, Indicated | Significant improvement in resilience as add-on therapy in depressed Thai patients at 3 months follow-up | Resilience, Depression |
[26] Petree, 2012 | Restaurant franchises in Texas and Illinois | Young restaurant workers; age22; 52% female | 28 restaurants and 485 workers randomized | 3-day workshop, 2 hrs each day; focused on building team resilience | Focused on “five Cs” of resilience; modified for young adult perspective | No; no intervention | General, Directed, Specific, Universal | At 6 and 12 months follow-up, no significant difference in stress and problems with coworkers; outcomes were measured in different cohort than randomized | None |
[27] Sood, 2011 | Academic medical center | Department of Medicine faculty members; age 48; 47% female | 40; 32 | Individual, single, 90 minute session focused on attention training, deep breathing; optional follow-up session | Adapted from Attention and Interpretation Therapy; focuses on novelty of the world and living life with higher principles | No; wait list control | General, Directed, Broad, Universal | Significant improvement in resiliency, perceived stress, anxiety, and quality of life at 8 weeks of follow-up | Resilience, Quality of Life, Stress |
[28] Loprinzi, 2011 | Academic medical center, USA | Breast cancer survivors serving as peer mentors; age 61 | 24; 20 | 2, 90-minute small group sessions for attention training and relaxation, one optional 45 minute individual session and 3 follow-up calls over 12 wks | Adapted from Attention and Interpretation Therapy; focuses on novelty of the world and living life with higher principles | No; wait list control | General, Directed, Broad, Universal | Significant improvement in resilience, stress, anxiety, and quality of life at 3 months of follow-up | Resilience, Quality of Life, Stress |
[29] Kent, 2011 | VA Health System, USA | US Veterans with PTSD; age 54; 33%female | 39; 39 | 12, manualized, weekly, 90-min group sessions to introduce concept of resilience, build self-awareness, test against stressors | Emphasizes a capacity-building approach to foster resilience resources that can be drawn upon | No; wait list control | Trauma, Directed, Broad, Indicated | Significant improvement in many affective symptoms and in emotional health immediately post-intervention | Depression, Stress |
[30] Luthans, 2010 | Large, Midwestern University, USA | Advanced management students; age 21; 42% female | NR; 153 in intervention and 89 in control | Single, 2-hr group training session with exercises and discussions to impact efficacy, hope, optimism, and resilience | Based on the construct of Psychological Capital (PsyCap) and developing its four loading capacity states | Yes; well-matched group decision-making intervention | General, Mediated, Broad, Universal | Significant and large improvement in Psychological Capital (PsyCap) at 3 days follow up in intervention group; res | None |
[33] Grant, 2010 | Independent girls school in Australia | High school educational workforce volunteers; age 43; 70% female | 50; 44 | 10 individual coaching sessions over 20 weeks using GROW (goal, reality, options, way forward) model to structure conversations | Cognitive behavioral, solution-focused coaching based on self-leadership and role support plays in building resilience | No; wait list control | General, Directed, Broad, Universal | Increased goal attainment, reduced stress, and enhanced workplace well-being and resilience immediately post-intervention | Resilience, Depression, Stress, Anxiety |
[31] Farchi, 2010 | City in Israel during active war and bombing | Adult residents of Siderot, Israel; about 70% female | NR; 68 | 2 phone calls 1 wk apart that asked participants to refute 6 challenging sentences | Based on use of psychological inoculation to build resilience and coping efficacy | Yes; 2 phone calls asking about coping strategies used | Trauma, Directed, Broad, Universal | No significant difference at 1 wk of follow-up in mental resilience outcomes | None |
[32] Dolbier, 2010 | Large University, USA | Compensated student volunteers; age 21; 84% female; 25% Hispanic, 22% Asian | 64; 38 | 4 weekly, 2 hr classroom sessions focused on transforming stress into resilience through empowering interpretations | Based on concept of stress-related growth, uses IFS model, CBT, transactional model of stress and coping and resilience models | No; wait list control | General, Directed, Broad, Universal | Evaluated reactions to remembered stressful events on stress-related growth; found no significant effect at 1 week of follow-up | None |
[37] Kanekar, 2009 | Midwestern University, USA | Asian-Indian volunteer students recently moving to US from India; age 25; 13% female | 60; 39 | 3, self-directed online sessions to be completed over 2 months focusing on social support, hardiness, and acculturation | Based on previous research suggesting social support, hardiness, and acculturation predicted mental health in Indian students | Yes; similar format focusing on general health awareness and wellness | General, Directed, Specific, Universal | Immediate post-test improvement in psychological distress but no change in social support, hardiness, or acculturation | Resilience |
[36] Grant, 2009 | Public health nursing agency in Australia | Executives and senior managers in leadership development program; age 50; 93% female | 50; 40 | Individualized feedback, one half-day training workshop, then 4 individual sessions over 8–10 wks from executive coaches | Solution-focused, cognitive behavioral coaching using GROW model and applied positive psychology | No; control had the leadership workshop but no coaching sessions | General, Directed, Broad, Universal | Significant improvement in goal attainment, resilience, andworkplace well-being immediately post-intervention but not in anxiety or stress | Resilience, Depression, Stress, Anxiety |
[35] Arnetz, 2009 | Police academy in Sweden | Young, male, rookie Swedish police officers in parent study | 25; 18 | Initial psychoeducational session then 10 weekly, 2-hr group sessions for relaxation, imagery training, skill rehearsal; tapes for home practice | Stress inoculation training through imaginal exposure and visual motor behavioral rehearsal | No; typical police training | Trauma, Directed, Specific, Universal | After 1 year, improved psychophysiological stress and police work performance after robust, live critical incident simulation; no outcomes at shorter follow-up | None |
[34] Abbott, 2009 | Industrial organization in Australia | Sales manager volunteers; age 43; 14% female | 53; 53 | 10 week, online, self-directed program using video, slides, virtual partners; also emails and a conference call | Focuses on emotion regulation, impulse control, optimism, causal analysis, empathy, self-efficacy, reaching out | No; wait list control | General, Directed, Broad, Universal | Half the sample was lost to follow-up but did ITT analysis; no significant difference immediately post-intervention between groups in mental health, QOL, or work performance; program well-accepted by completers | Quality of Life, Depression, Stress, Anxiety |
[38] Steinhardt, 2008 | Major University, USA | Compensated undergraduate and graduate students; age 21; 82% female; 26% Asian, 20% Hispanic | 64; 57 | 4 weekly, 2-hr classroom sessions during final weeks of class; focus on transforming stress into resilience | Uses cognitive behavioral therapy drawing on transactional model of stress and coping and resilience and thriving models | No; wait list control | General, Directed, Broad, Universal | Significant improvement in resilience and coping immediately post-intervention and improved mental health symptomatology compared to control in MANOVA analysis | Resilience, Depression, Stress |
[39] Luthans, 2008 | Diverse industries through University contacts | Diverse sample of working adult volunteers; age 32; 89% white | NR; 364 | 2, 45-min, self-directed, web-based sessions 1 wk apart with narrated slides, reflection exercises, goal-setting | Based on Psychological Capital model and focuses on developing states of hope, optimism, efficacy, and resilience | Yes; attention-matched program focusing on decision making exercises | General, Mediated, Broad, Universal | Statistically significant but small improvement in PsyCap post-intervention compared to control | None |
[40] Bradshaw, 2007 | Academic diabetes center | Type 2 diabetes patients; age 59, 65% female; 90% white | 200 randomized prior to invitation; 67 accepted; 51 analyzed | 10, 90-min training classes 2x/wk for 5 wks held in the hospital | Modules focused on psychosocial enrichment, exploring functions to fortify mind, body, spirit | No; standard diabetes care | General, Directed, Specific, Universal | No significant improvement at 3 months in psychophysiological outcomes, although knowledge of coping strategies increased; outcomes not reported in fashion suitable for meta-analysis | None |
[41] Waite, 2004 | Government organization, USA | Members of work units in tax processing division; 84% female, 90% white | 232 cluster randomized; 150 analyzed | 5, weekly, 7-hr group sessions using Chi, quanta, practical experiences and skills | Focused on mental and spiritual health, development of understanding of disruptions | No; potential contamination with control work units | General, Directed, Broad, Universal | Significant improvement in resilience and psychological outcomes post-test; were maintained at 10 wks follow-up | Resilience, Self-efficacy |
[14] Schachman, 2004 | Air Force Base, USA | Primigravid military wives in childbirth class; age 21, 76% white | 111; 91 | Weekly group meetings x4 as part of traditional child birth course; small group and role play activities | Based on resilience model; sought to identify internal and external resources | Yes; attention-matched traditional classes | General, Directed, Specific, Universal | Significant and large improvement in resilience immediately post-intervention but not maintained 6 wks postpartum. Improved maternal role adaptation. | Resilience |
[13] Sadow, 1993 | Domiciliary for homeless veterans; USA | Substance-abusing homeless vets; likely all men | NR; 96 | 6 week program using metaphor of a scientist trying to make sense of life events | Psychoeducational instruction based on a resiliency training model, developing internal locus of control | Yes; program focused on verbal and written skills training | General, Directed, Broad, Universal | Significant but small improvement at 6 wks of follow-up in self-efficacy and internality of locus of control | Self-efficacy |
[42] Bekki, 2013 | Major Universities in USA | Compensated female doctoral students in physical sciences and engineering; age 27; 17% Asian | 176; 134 | Self-directed, web-based program explored for 5 hrs over 2 wks; uses case studies, video interviews | Problem-solving model; resilience and self-efficacy and cognitive behavioral theories | No; wait list control | General, Directed, Specific, Universal | Significant and large improvement immediately post-test in problem-solving knowledge, resilience, and coping efficacy compared to control | Resilience, Self-efficacy |
Sharma, unpublished | Academic medical center, USA | Irritable bowel syndrome patients | 23; 23 (interim analysis) | 24 wk program with initial, individual training session, 6 handouts over next 12 wks; phone calls every 4 wks | Stress management and resilience training based on Attention Interpretation Training, mind-body approaches, transactional model of stress and coping | Somewhat; given stress management DVD and follow-up phone calls | General, Directed, Broad, Universal | Lost 3 to follow-up; interim ITT analysis half-way through intervention (12 wks) shows no significant difference in mental health or resilience outcomes | Resilience, Quality of Life, Stress, Anxiety |
[49] Burton, unpublished | Single center, Australia | Worksite volunteers within a government department, clustered by occupation; age 45; 98% female | 55 cluster randomized by occupation work site and geographic location; 46 analyzed | 10 2.5 hr group sessions over 13 weeks targeting psychosocial well-being; involved psychoeducation, discussion, experiential learning, and home assignments with workbook; third arm not analyzed here added promotion of physical activity | Cognitive behavioral therapy based on six core Acceptance and Commitment Therapy processes | No, wait list control | General, Directed, Broad, Universal | At 1 month of follow up, no significant difference in most outcomes. A third arm not analyzed here involved the addition of physical activity to intervention and showed similar results. CHD risk indicators and physical activity also measured but not sought for this review. | Resilience, Depression, Stress, Anxiety |
*Refers to operational framework presented in Figure 1. General = general stress-directed; Trauma = trauma-induced stress-directed; Directed = resilience-directed; Mediated = resilience-mediated; Broad = designed for broad/multiple populations; Specific = designed for specific/single populations; Universal = intended for universal application; Indicated = intended for “as needed” application
NR = not reported.