Table 2.
Characteristics of studies on fish consumption and metabolic syndrome (MetS), organized by study design (intervention, prospective, cross-sectional)
| Reference | Country/design | Aim | Population | Diet | Adjustments | Results adjusted OR (95% CI) incidence/prevalence of MetS |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ramel et al., 2009 [10] | Iceland RCT, part of SEAFOODplus YOUNG study 8w parallel intervention | Investigate whether cod consumption increases weight loss and CVD risk factors | n = 126, 20–40 y, overweight healthy, no gender distribution given | Energy-restricted diets (−30%), identical macronutrient composition, different amounts of cod (control group: no seafood, group 1: 150 g cod 3x/w, group 2: 150 g cod 5x/w) | In linear model with waist (baseline anthropometric measure, gender, diet group), and with blood variables (baseline anthropometric measure, weight loss, gender, diet group) | No association |
| Baik et al., 2010 [11] | Korea 3 y follow up Korean Genome Epidemiology Study | Investigate effect of fish and n-3 fatty acid intake on incidence of MetS | n = 3504, 40–69 y 52% men, free of MetS and CVD at baseline | FFQ Average fish intake was grouped (<1/week, 1-4/week, 5-6/week and daily) | Age, BMI, income, occupation, marital status, education, smoking, alcohol, physical activity, dietary intake (energy, fat, fibre, red meat, dairy products, sweetened carbonated beverage, multivitamin), health (diabetes, hypertension, menopausal status, postmenopausal hormone use) | Men: Average daily intake of fish (40–70 g) reduced the risk of having MetS, compared with eating fish less than once a week OR 0.43 (0.23-0.83) Women: No associations |
| Kouki et al., 2011 [12] | Finland Cross-sectional, DR’s EXTRAStudy | Studie associations between food items and nutrients versus the risk of having MetS | n = 1 334, 57–78 y 50% men Representative population sample | 4-day food record Consumption of fish divided into tertiles (<18.5, 18.5–59.5, (>59.5 g/day) | a, Age, alcohol consumption, smoking b, Further for education, VO2max | Men: the middle and highest tertile had almost half the risk of having MetS, compared to lowest tertile. a, t2: 0.51 (0.33–0.77) t3: 0.53 (0.35–0.81)b, t2: 0.52 (0.32–0.83) t3: 0.63 (0.40–1.00)Women: No association |
| Lai et al., 2013 [13] | Cross-sectional National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Family Heart Study | Assess association between dietary omega-3 fatty acids and MetS prevalence | n = 4941, mean age (SD) 52.1 (13.9) y 46% men | FFQ (fish consumption classified as 0, 1, 2, ≥3 servings/ week) | Age, gender, race, alcohol intake, smoking, exercise, TV watching, energy intake, multivitamin use, fruits/vegetables intake, fibre intake, risk group | No association |
| Pasalic et al. 2011 [14] | Croatia Cross-sectional | Investigate prevalence of MetS, and influence of lifestyle habits between continental and Mediterranean–Adriatic centres | n = 320, 70–90 y, 44% men | FFQ Consumption of fish grouped into never/rarely or monthly | Centres | No association |
| Ruidavets et al., 2007 [15] | France Cross-sectional | Analyse relation between food groups and frequency of IRS | n = 912, 100% men 45–64 years randomly selected | 3-day food record fish consumption divided into tertiles | Age, centre, physical activity, education, smoking habits, alcohol consumption, drugs (hypertension, dyslipidaemia), energy intake (without alcohol), dieting, and diet quality index | A negative association between fish intake and prevalence of MetS OR 0.57 (0.38-0.86), when comparing highest tertile to lowest |
| Zaribaf et al., 2014 [16] | Iran Cross-sectional | Association between fish consumption and metabolic syndrome and its components | n = 420, 100% women, >30 y | FFQ fish consumption divided into tertiles | Age, energy intake, physical activity, socioeconomic status, medication use, marital, menopausal status, dietary intake (red meat, grains, fruits, vegetables, legume, nuts, dairy products, fibre, oils), BMI | Individuals in the highest tertile of fish intake were less likely to have MetS, compared to those in the lowest tertile OR 0.04 (0.004–0.61) |
BMI: Body Mass Index; CI: confidence interval; CVD: cardiovascular disease; FFQ: Food Frequency Questionnaire; DBP: diastolic blood pressure; IRS: insulin resistance syndrome; MetS: metabolic syndrome; OR: odds ratio; RCT: randomized clinical trial; SBP: systolic blood pressure; WC: waist circumference.