Table 2.
Preclinical studies on toluene’s effects
| Acute Effects | Preparation | Species | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Reinforcing properties | Intravenous self-administration | Mice | [25] |
| Conditioned place preference | Rats | [23] | |
| Mice | [22] | ||
| Discriminative stimulus effects | Toluene acts as a discriminative stimulus | Mice | [27, 28] |
| Amphetamine-like effects | Mice | [32] | |
| CNS depressant-like effects | Mice | [29, 30] | |
| Anxiolytic-like | Burying behavior test (decreased cumulative time burying the prod) | Mice | [35, 36] |
| Elevated plus maze (increased number of entries and time spent in open arms) | Mice | [34] | |
| Geller-Seifter conflict test (active response reinstatement after punishment) | Rats | [31, 37] | |
| Motor Incoordination | Rota rod test | Rats | [50] |
| Anticonvulsant | PTZ-induced seizures (decreased percentage of convulsing animals) | Rats | [37] |
| NMDA-induced seizures (decreased percentage of convulsing animals; protection against death) | Mice | [38, 41] | |
| Nicotine-, picrotoxin- and bicucullin-induced seizures (increased seizure threshold) | Mice | [41] | |
| Antidepressant-like | Forced swimming test and tail suspension test (decreased immobility). | Mice | [44] |
| Altered locomotion | Open field test Low concentrations: increased locomotion. High concentrations: decreased locomotion. |
Rats | [45, 47, 48, 52, 58] |
| Impaired Learning and Memory | Passive avoidance test (long-term memory) | Rats | [52] |
| Novel object recognition test (reduced novel object exploration) | Rats | [52] | |
| Mice | [49, 53] | ||
| Pronociception | Hot plate test and tail flick tests (increased latency to response) | Mice | [36, 54] |
| Antinociception | Foot-shock test (increased threshold to elicit a response. | Rats | [52] |
| Impulsivity-like | Waiting for reward task | Mice | [65] |
| Social interaction | Social interaction test (reduced contact with a partner) | Mice | [53] |
| Chronic exposure | |||
| Impaired learning and memory | Morris water maze; object recognition, passive avoidance test | Rat | [52, 66] |
| Sensitization to hyperlocomotion | Open field test | Mice | [67] |
| Prenatal exposure | |||
| Increased locomotor activity | Open field test | Rat | [62] |
| Delayed reflexes | Postnatal test battery (surface righting, air righting, auditory startle) | Rat | [62] |
| Impulsivity-like | Waiting for reward task | Rat | [65] |
| Sensitization to hyperlocomotion | Open field test (amphetamine induced locomotion) | Rat | [68] |