Table 2. Associations between low birth weight and contextual risk factors, GDHS 2003 and 2008.

	Null model	Mode with population level factors	Mode with individual & community level determinants
FIXED EFFECT (OR, 95% CI, P-value)
Contextual-level factors
Residence
Rural		1.17 (0.96–1.42)	1.43 (1.01–2.01)*
Urban		1 (reference)	1 (reference)
Community poverty level
High		1.61 (1.13–2.29)**	2.16 (1.29–3.61)**
Low		1 (reference)	1 (reference)
Community Illiteracy level
High		1.13 (0.83–1.54)	1.22 (0.70–2.12)
Low		1 (reference)	1 (reference)
Community safe water coverage
High		0.78 (0.65–0.93)**	0.74 (0.57–0.96)*
Low		1 (reference)	1 (reference)
Community healthcare access
Difficult		1.09 (0.84–1.42)	1.28 (0.87–1.87)
Not difficult		1 (reference)	1 (reference)
RANDOM EFFECT
Area Variance (SE)	0.208 (0.048)***	0.190 (0.047)***	0.168 (0.081)**
PCV		−8.7%	−12.1%
MOR	1.54 (1.41–1.72)	1.51 (1.38–1.70)	1.48 (1.28–1.87)
ICC (latent variable method)	0.060	0.055	0.049
AIC	6098.007	6059.623	2885.930

Model 1 is the null model, contained no explanatory variable.

Model 2 adjusted for contextual-level characteristics.

Model 3 adjusted for both population-level and individual-level characteristics.

Individual-level characteristics adjusted for: maternal age, marital status, parity, maternal BMI, maternal education, maternal occupation, birth interval, use of mosquito net or malaria prophylactic, anaemia in pregnancy, antenatal care, smoking, unwanted pregnancy, maternal nutritional intake, ethnicity & wealth index.

Abbreviations: OR: odds ratio; SE: standard error; PCV: proportional change in variance; 95% CI: 95% confidence interval; MOR: median odds ratio; ICC: intracluster correlation.

***p<0.001, **p<0.01, and *p<0.05.