Table 2.

Promoters and inhibitors of vascular calcification

Promoters of vascular calcification	Inhibitors of vascular calcification
Traditional factors	Circulating inhibitors
Older age, male gender, hypertension, diabetes, smoking, high LDL cholesterol, low HDL cholesterol, genetic predisposition	Fetuin-A, bone morphogenetic protein-7, parathyroid hormone-related peptide, HDL cholesterol, magnesium,
Uraemia-related factors
Uraemia, hyperphosphatemia,	Locally acting inhibitors
increased Ca x P product, exogenous vitamin D therapy, elevated parathyroid hormone level, duration of dialysis, calcium load and hypercalcaemia, chronic inflammation, warfarin, elevated leptin levels	Matrix Gla protein, α-klotho, osteopontin, pyrophosphate, osteoprotegerin, genetic predisposition

Adapted from Qunibi[87], 2005. HDL: High-density lipoprotein.