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atRA induced negligible apoptosis and necrosis in VSMC and AF. VSMC (A) and AF (B) exposed to atRA (50–100 μmol/l) exhibited negligible early apoptosis, late apoptosis, and necrosis between the treatment groups. All treatment groups displayed a similar percentage of live cells. VSMC (C) and AF (D) exposed to atRA (50–100 μmol/l) showed no significant decrease in cell count over 24 h. Data are representative of 4 separate experiments (n = 3–5/treatment group).
