Table 1.
Characteristics of the study sample, overall and according to obese (BMI ≥95th percentile) and lean (BMI<85th percentile) status among 262 Project Viva mother-child pairsa
All n = 262 |
Obese n = 84 |
Lean n = 150 |
Pb | |
---|---|---|---|---|
|
||||
Family & background characteristics | ||||
Sociodemographic characteristics | ||||
Child’s age (years) | 8.0 ± 0.9 | 8.2 ± 1.0 | 7.9 ± 0.8 | 0.006 |
Female, % (N) | 50 (131) | 61.9 (52) | 44.0 (66) | 0.009 |
Child’s race/ethnicity, % (N) | 0.0009 | |||
White | 56.3 (147) | 38.1 (32) | 63.1 (94) | |
African American | 24.1 (63) | 40.5 (34) | 17.5 (26) | |
Hispanic | 6.9 (18) | 8.3 (7) | 7.4 (11) | |
Asian | 0.8 (2) | 0.0 (0) | 1.3 (2) | |
Other | 11.9 (31) | 13.1 (11) | 10.7 (16) | |
Mother’s age at enrollment (years) | 32.0 ± 5.8 | 30.4 ± 5.7 | 32.4 ± 5.8 | 0.009 |
Mother completed university education, % (N) | 22.2 (58) | 16.7 (14) | 28.9 (43) | 0.04 |
Annual household income < 20 K, % (N) | 4.2 (10) | 7.0 (5) | 3.6 (5) | 0.27 |
Father’s BMI (kg/m2) | 26.8 ± 4.0 | 27.9 ± 4.4 | 25.9 ± 3.5 | 0.001 |
Perinatal & early life characteristics | ||||
Mother’s pre-pregnancy BMI (kg/m2) | 26.0 ± 6.0 | 28.7 ± 7.1 | 24.4 ± 4.8 | <0.0001 |
Excessive gestational weight gain, %(N) | 58.8 (154) | 64.3 (54) | 54.0 (81) | 0.13 |
Gestational diabetes, % (N) | 8.4 (22) | 4.8 (4) | 10.7 (16) | 0.12 |
C-section delivery, % (N) | 19.5 (51) | 19.1 (16) | 15.4 (23) | 0.48 |
Mother smoked during pregnancy, % (N) | 13.7 (36) | 21.4 (18) | 11.3 (17) | 0.04 |
Birthweight for gestational age z-score | 0.25 ± 0.97 | 0.19 ± 1.00 | 0.21 ± 0.93 | 0.83 |
Duration of breastfeeding (months) | 5.9 ± 4.5 | 4.8 ± 4.4 | 6.5 ± 4.6 | 0.01 |
Characteristics in mid-childhood | ||||
Overall adiposity | ||||
DXA total fat mass (kg) | 9.4 ± 5.5 | 15.5 ± 5.1 | 5.7 ± 1.6 | <0.0001 |
BMI z-score | 0.8 ± 1.1 | 2.07 ± 0.29 | −0.04 ± 0.72 | <0.0001 |
SS + TR (mm) | 24.5 ± 13.3 | 39.6 ± 11.2 | 15.7 ± 4.4 | <0.0001 |
Central adiposity | ||||
DXA trunk fat mass (kg) | 3.4 ± 2.5 | 6.1 ± 2.4 | 1.8 ± 0.6 | <0.0001 |
Waist circumference (cm) | 63.8 ± 11.3 | 76.6 ± 9.5 | 56.5 ± 4.3 | <0.0001 |
SS/TR | 0.75 ± 0.23 | 0.91 ± 0.27 | 0.67 ± 0.15 | <0.0001 |
Height z-score | 0.41 ± 1.04 | 0.92 ± 0.83 | 0.08 ± 1.01 | <0.0001 |
Conventional cardiometabolic biomarkers | ||||
Fasting insulin (μIU/mL) | 9.7 ± 7.5 | 14.5 ± 9.7 | 6.9 ± 3.6 | <0.0001 |
Fasting glucose (mg/dL) | 96.9 ± 16.5 | 97.5 ± 16.9 | 97.1 ± 16.9 | 0.87 |
Triglycerides (mg/dL) | 62.4 ± 50.8 | 70.6 ± 35.6 | 54.9 ± 20.4 | <0.0001 |
hsCRP (mg/dL) | 1.2 ± 3.7 | 2.7 ± 6.0 | 0.4 ± 1.1 | <0.0001 |
IL-6 (pg/mL) | 1.1 ± 1.3 | 1.3 ± 1.3 | 0.9 ± 1.3 | 0.04 |
Leptin (ng/mL) | 8.2 ± 9.7 | 15.1 ± 12.2 | 4.7 ± 5.7 | <0.0001 |
Highest quartile of physical activity, % (N) | 26.5 (66) | 16.7 (13) | 31.5 (46) | 0.02 |
Sugar-sweetened beverage intake (servings/day) | 0.4 ± 0.7 | 0.5 ± 0.8 | 0.3 ± 0.5 | 0.06 |
Dietary intake >4 times/week, % (N) | ||||
Fast-food | 0.8 (2) | 2.6 (2) | 0.0 (0) | 0.05 |
Eggs | 8.1 (20) | 6.5 (5) | 9.0 (13) | 0.52 |
Whole dairy | 43.7 (108) | 42.9 (33) | 43.5 (63) | 0.93 |
Margarine | 3.2 (8) | 2.6 (2) | 3.5 (5) | 0.73 |
Meat | 8.1 (20) | 5.2 (4) | 9.0 (13) | 0.31 |
Pubertal status | ||||
Body hair, % (N) | 19.3 (48) | 30.8 (24) | 14.4 (21) | 0.004 |
Breast development, girls only % (N) | 32.5 (41) | 55.1 (27) | 13.6 (9) | <0.0001 |
Deepening of voice, boys only % (N) | 6.5 (8) | 6.9 (2) | 6.3 (5) | 0.90 |
Values represent mean ± SD unless otherwise indicated.
Pearson’s chi-squared test for categorical variables; Wald test for continuous variables.