Table 4.
Overview of beliefs with respect to depression in non-Western cultural groups.
| References | Sample | Variables assessed | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cultural groups | Participants | Sample Size | Conceptualization | Assumed causes | Preferred treatment | Relation causes/Conceptualization and treatment | |
| Aidoo and Harpham, 2001 | African: Zambian | O | 139 | Problem of the mind, no health-related problem | (1) Problems of the mind (unhappiness, sleep disturbance, headache) | No treatment | Reported relation (no statistical analysis): Conceptualization as no medical problem coincides with high preference for no treatment |
| (2) Poverty and resulting worries | |||||||
| (3) Mood swings | |||||||
| (4) Satan, witchcraft, God | |||||||
| Lavender et al., 2006 | African: Yoruba | G | 20 | No agreement on whether person described in vignette was ill or not | (1) Magic, evil spirits, devil | (1) Religion | Reported relations (no statistical analysis): Belief in Magic/ Witchcraft as cause was associated with religious activities or witchcraft as treatment |
| (2) Family problems | (2) Doctors or nurses | ||||||
| (3) Problems with partner/breakup | (3) Friends and neighbors | ||||||
| (4) Financial problems | (4) Herbalist | ||||||
| No belief in medical cause was associated with preference for no medication | |||||||
| Lavender et al., 2006 | Asian: Bangladeshi | G | 20 | (1) Family problems | (1) Doctors or nurses | ||
| (2) Financial problems | (2) Family support | ||||||
| (3) Problems with spouse | (3) Friend support | ||||||
| (4) Worries about responsibilities | (4) Addressing the cause | ||||||
| Grover et al., 2012 | Asian: North Indian | P | 164 | Reported on spontaneously: | |||
| (1) Psychological causes | |||||||
| (2) Social causes | |||||||
| (3) Karma, deed, heredity | |||||||
| Reported on probing: | |||||||
| (1) Karma, deed, heredity | |||||||
| (2) Psychological causes | |||||||
| (3) Social causes | |||||||
| (4) Will of God | |||||||
| Nieuwsma et al., 2011 | Asian: North Indian | S | 92 | (1) Failure | (1) Social support | ||
| (2) Unfulfilled expectations | (2) Problem-focused coping | ||||||
| (3) Family issues | (3) Meditation | ||||||
| (4) Stress/Anxiety | (4) Professional treatment | ||||||
| Shankar et al., 2006 | Asian: Indian | P | 72 | Worries about life's problems, thinking too much and worries about physical health | (1) Physical disease | (1) Medication | Reported relation (no statistical analysis): Assumption of physical disease was associated with preference for medical treatment |
| (2) No physical disease | (2) No treatment | ||||||
| (3) Native healing | |||||||
| Raguram et al., 2001 | Asian: South Indian | P | 80 | Reported spontaneously: | (1) Private allopath | ||
| (1) Social Causes | (2) Government allopath | ||||||
| (2) Medical Causes | (3) Pharmacy | ||||||
| (3) Weakness of Nerves | (4) Vow, fast, prayer, sacrifice | ||||||
| (4) Psychological Causes | |||||||
| Rated as most important: | |||||||
| (1) Weakness of Nerves | |||||||
| (2) Stress, loss, shock | |||||||
| (3) Mind, thoughts, worries | |||||||
| (4) Marital problems | |||||||
| Swami et al., 2010 | Asian: Malayan, rural | G | 189 | (1) Emotional stress | (1) Stress, pressure | (1) Counseling | Correlation between assumption of stress as a cause of depression and preference for treatment |
| (2) Depression | (2) Destiny, God | (2) Psychiatrist, psychologist | |||||
| (3) Biological causes | (3) Holiday | ||||||
| (4) Environmental causes | (4) Social support | ||||||
| Swami et al., 2010 | Asian: Malayan, urban | G | 153 | (1) Depression | (1) Stress, pressure | (1) Psychiatrist, Psychologist | |
| (2) Emotional Stress | (2) Biological causes | (2) Counseling | |||||
| (3) Environmental causes | (3) Religion, prayer | ||||||
| (4) Destiny, God | (4) Social Support | ||||||
| Jorm et al., 2005b | Asian: Japanese | G | 2000 | (1) Psychological/ Mental/Emotional problems | (1) Talking with friends and family | ||
| (2) Stress | (2) Counselor | ||||||
| (3) Depression | (3) Psychiatrist | ||||||
| (4) Mental Illness | (4) Doctor | ||||||
| Kwong et al., 2012 | Asian: Chinese | P | 42 | (1) Life stress | (1) Lay help (self, friends, relatives) | ||
| (2) Psychological causes | (2) General health services (pharmacy, doctor, hospital) | ||||||
| (3) Medicinal causes | (3) Alternative treatment by provider (acupuncture, herbal/traditional healers) | ||||||
| (4) Traditional causes | (4) Alternative self-treatment | ||||||
| Yeung et al., 2004 | Asian: Chinese | P | 29 | (1) No psychiatric disorder | (1) Stress or psychological factors | (1) General hospital services | |
| (2) Psychiatric condition | (2) Magical, religious, supernatural factors | (2) Lay help | |||||
| (3) Medical problems | (3) Alternative treatment | ||||||
| (4) Traditional beliefs | (4) Spiritual treatment | ||||||
| Ying, 1990 | Asian: Chinese | G | 40 | (1) Psychological Problem | (1) External stress | (1) Help by psychologist or general practitioner | Assumed cause psychological: 30% seek professional help (almost all by psychologist), 30% seek non-professional help, 39% seek self-help. |
| (2) Physical problem | (2) Interpersonal factors | (2) Help by family and friends | |||||
| (3) Immigration | (3) Self-help | ||||||
| (4) Physical factors | |||||||
| Assumed cause physical: 75% seek professional help (mostly by GP), 17% seek non-professional help, 8% seek self-help | |||||||
Note: Assumed causes and preferred treatments were included when a majority of participants endorsed them or rated them above the midpoint of the respective scale. Presented categories of causes and treatments were developed by the respective authors.