Table 1. Adjusted odds ratios (OR) for living in an urban environment and obesity using stratification by country/countries, per capita GNI, year of fieldwork, sex, age of study population and criteria for obesity.

Stratification	Number of observations	OR for living in an urban environment (95% CI)	P-value	I2	p-values*	F-ratio (p-value)**
None	37	1.99 (1.64 to 2.41)	<0.001	92.1%	<0.001	–
Country/countries						12.16 (<0.001)
Philippines and Malaysia	10	1.29 (1.14 to 1.45)	0.001	62.8%	<0.001
Thailand	11	1.66 (1.30 to 2.11)	0.001	93.2%	<0.001
Vietnam and Laos	11	3.36 (2.14 to 5.27)	<0.001	90.6%	<0.001
Indonesia and Timor-Leste	5	3.14 (2.22 to 4.46)	0.001	40.4%	<0.001
Per capita GNI (US dollars)						12.00 (<0.001)
<1,500	14	3.42 (2.42 to 4.84)	<0.001	89.4%	<0.001
1,500–2,500	10	1.62 (1.20 to 2.18)	<0.001	86.7%	<0.001
>2,500	13	1.50 (1.23 to 1.82)	0.01	91.9%	<0.001
Year of field work						0.78 (0.383)
2004 to 2013	20	1.85 (1.45 to 2.37)	<0.001	92.4%	<0.001
Up to 2003	17	2.22 (1.60 to 3.09)	<0.001	91.9%	<0.001
Sex of study population						0.94 (0.407)
Men only	7	1.76 (1.14 to 2.73)	0.020	90.8%	<0.001
Women only	6	1.47 (0.89 to 2.43)	0.106	82.8%	<0.001
Both	24	2.19 (1.70 to 2.81)	<0.001	92.2%	<0.001
Age of population						3.57 (0.067)
Children	17	2.43 (1.72 to 3.43)	<0.001	92.9%	<0.001
Adults	20	1.65 (1.36 to 1.99)	<0.001	90.9%	<0.001
Obesity classifcation						1.18 (0.318)
Non BMI classifciation (using WC)	3	2.10 (0.53 to 8.28)	0.145	98.0%	<0.001
Obesity defined BMI≥23 or 25	29	2.13 (1.69 to 2.67)	<0.001	91.1%	<0.001
Obesity defined as BMI≥30	5	1.39 (0.90 to 2.16)	0.104	80.9%	<.0.001

Twenty eight studies contributed to 37 independent age and sex adjusted estimates (Figure 1); Reference group is living in a rural environment; GNI gross national income; WC waist circumference;

* p-value for heterogeneity chi-square;

** Likelihood ratio test for heterogeneity between subgroup by meta-regression, providing F-ratio and p-values.