Diagram of the experimental design. Drought priming was applied either once during the stem elongation stage or twice during seedling and stem elongation. Drought priming was induced by withholding watering for 5–7 d until the soil water content reached approx. 35–40% for 2 d. Drought stress was applied 15 d after anthesis by withholding watering for 5 d until the soil water content dropped to 20–25% for 3 d. N, non-priming at the respective growth stage; P, priming at respective stage; NN, non-primed plants; NP, drought priming only at stem elongation stage; PP, drought priming at both seedling and stem elongation stages; NNC, control; NND, no priming+drought stress during grain filling; NPC, priming at stem elongation stage+non-stress during grain filling; NPD, priming at stem elongation stage+drought stress during grain filling; PPC, priming twice+non-stress during grain filling; PPD, priming twice+drought stress during grain filling. The small up arrows indicate time of sampling/measurement or harvesting. The primed plants and the drought-stressed plants during grain filling were rewatered immediately after the sampling and measurement.