Table 1.
Studies in Pediatric Populations using Exfoliated Epithelial Cells to Measure the Impact of Diet, Gestational Age or Probiotic Administration on Gene Expression.
| Author | Population Studied | Tissue | How Obtained | Key Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chapkin et al. 2010 [46] | BF (n=12) and FF (n=10) term | Intestine | Stool | 1,214 genes were differentially expressed between BF and FF. Major gene pathways were related to signal transduction, cytoskeletal remodeling, cell adhesion and immune response. |
| Kaeffer et al. 2007 [52] | Preterm (n=96); 24–36 wk GA | Stomach; Intestine | Gastric aspirates; Stool | Exfoliated cells isolated from gastric aspirates expressed housekeeping, cytokeratin, SLC-26-A7-I, period 2 and clock genes by PCR |
| Kaeffer et al. 2011 [60] | Preterm (n=24); 25–32 wk GA | Stomach | Gastric aspirates; Collected weekly after birth or every 3h over a 24h period | H+/K+-ATPase positive cells expressing markers of progenitor status were recovered from gastric fluid; aspirates in preterm infants. Exfoliation increased with postnatal/post-conceptual age and volume of enteral feeds and was greater in infants fed preterm formula than preterm human milk. |
| Knight et al. 2014 [48] | Term (n=6) and preterm (n=6) | Intestine | Stool | RNAseq analysis of host mRNA in stool. Pathways associated with immune cell function and inflammation were up-regulated in preterm infants; cell growth related genes were up-regulated in term infants. |
| Rautava et al. 2012 [10] | Term infants delivered by cesarean section (n=29). Mothers were given placebo (n=10), 109 CFU Bifidobacterium. lactis (n=10) or 109 CFU B. lactis + 109 CFU Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (=9) for 14 d prior to cesarean | Intestine | Meconium | PCR of host mRNA in meconium. Reduced TLR7 mRNA expression was detected in intestinal cells from meconium of infants whose mothers received B. lactis, while maternal B. lactis +Lactobacillus GG decreased TLR6 mRNA expression in fetal intestinal cells from meconium. |
| Schwartz et al. 2012 [47] | BF (n=6) and FF (n=6) term | Intestine | Stool | Virulence genes in the bacterial metagenome were correlated with immunity and defense genes in host exfoliated epithelial cells. |
Abbreviations: BF, breastfed; FF, CFU, colony forming units; formula-fed; GA, gestational age; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; TLR, toll like receptor