Pathways linking several common comorbidities to disease progression in both HFpEF and HFrEF are presented and factors exacerbating other comorbid conditions are highlighted. These comorbidities are interrelated by several common mechanisms, including inflammation and worsening congestion, as well as by sympathetic and renin-angiotensin aldosterone system activation. Heart failure influences each of the comorbidities, demonstrating the bidirectional association.
Abbreviations: COPD = chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; CV = cardiovascular; HFpEF = heart failure with preserved ejection fraction; HFrEF = heart failure with reduced ejection fraction; LV = left ventricular; RAAS = renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system; RV = right ventricular.