Table 1.

Risk Factors for Depression in Older Adults

Authors, year	Sample	Finding
Age
Cole et al (2003)152	Age≥50	Meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Pooled OR for depression associated with age: 1.2 (95% CI: 0.9-1.7)
Snowden (2008)153	Mixed age	Comprehensive review of epidemiological studies: Depression is as common in older age as in earlier life.
Being Female
Cole et al (2003)152	Age≥50	Meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Pooled OR for depression associated with being female: 1.4 (95% CI: 1.2-1.8)
Sonnenberg et al (2001)154	55≤Age≤85	A random, age and sex-stratified community sample of 3056 older Dutch people; Prevalence of depression in women was almost twice as high as in men.
Grief and Loss
Zisook et al (1991)155	Mixed age	Major depression and anxiety disorders are common within the first year of the spouse’s death: 29-58% meet criteria for major depression at one month, 24-30% at two months, and 25% at three months.
Cole et al (2003)152	Age≥50	Meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Pooled OR for depression associated with recent bereavement: 3.3 (95% CI: 1.7-4.9)
Turkey et al (1999)156	Age≥70	The rate of syndromal depression in the newly bereaved was nearly nine times as high as the rate for married individuals, and the rate of depressive symptoms was nearly four times as high.
Social Isolation
Cole et al (2003)152	Age≥50	Meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Pooled OR for depression associated with living alone: 1.7 (95% CI: 0.6-4.7)
Prince et al (1998)157	Age≥65	Prospective epidemiological study. Lack of contact with friends was a direct risk factor but also modified the association between handicap and depression.
Cacioppo et al (2006)158	Age≥55	There is a reciprocal relationship between loneliness depressive symptomatology and over time
Cognitive impairment
Cole et al (2003)152	Age≥50	Meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Pooled OR for depression associated with recent bereavement: 2.1 (95% CI: 0.6-8.6)