Fig. 10.

Effects of acute IH on glucose homeostasis. IH stimulates arterial chemoreceptors that in turn activate the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). Downstream activation of α-AR in the pancreas and liver, respectively, inhibit insulin secretion and stimulate glycogenolysis. Activation of β-AR stimulates white adipose tissue lipolysis. The net effect of IH is glucose intolerance, hyperglycemia, and FFA elevation. Similar pathways have been demonstrated for other forms of acute stress, including SH.