Table 3.
Crude and adjusted odds ratios, with 95% confidence intervals, for modifiable lifestyle risk factors and risk of depression
| Positive depression screen^, n/N(%) | p | Crude OR (95% CI) | A OR (95% CI) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Smoking | Never | 153/1072 (14.3) | <0.001 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
| Former | 178/890 (20.0) | 1.50 (1.19–1.90)** | 1.54 (1.18–2.03)** | ||
| Current | 96/257 (37.4) | 3.58 (2.64–4.86)*** | 2.29 (1.60–3.27)*** | ||
| Alcohol | Low | 310/1354 (22.9) | <0.001 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
| Moderate | 113/834 (13.5) | 0.53 (0.42–0.67)*** | 0.73 (0.55–0.96)* | ||
| High | 4/17 (23.5) | 1.04 (0.34–3.20) | 1.35 (0.38–4.74) | ||
| Exercise | Low | 257/909 (28.3) | <0.001 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
| Moderate | 104/701 (14.8) | 0.44 (0.34–0.57)*** | 0.58 (0.43–0.78)*** | ||
| High | 63/591 (10.7) | 0.30 (0.23–0.41)*** | 0.51 (0.36–0.72)*** | ||
| Vitamin D | None | 117/389 (30.1) | <0.001 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
| 1- 5000 IU | 231/1324 (17.4) | 0.49 (0.38–0.64)*** | 0.57 (0.43–0.77)*** | ||
| > 5000 IU | 64/439 (14.6) | 0.40 (0.28–0.56)*** | 0.47 (0.32–0.70)*** | ||
| Omega 3 | No | 218/791 (27.6) | <0.001 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
| Yes | 205/1420 (14.4) | 0.44 (0.36–0.55)*** | 0.58 (0.45–0.75)*** | ||
| Omega 3 type | None | 218/791 (27.6) | <0.001 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
| Fish oil^ | 127/778 (16.3) | 0.51 (0.40–0.66)*** | 0.64 (0.48–0.85)** | ||
| Flaxseed oil | 21/200 (10.5) | 0.31 (0.19–0.50)*** | 0.48 (0.28–0.82)** | ||
| Both fish oil and flaxseed oil | 46/388 (11.9) | 0.35 (0.25–0.50)*** | 0.49 (0.33–0.72)*** | ||
| Fish consumption | Less than once per week | 180/638 (28.2) | <0.001 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
| 1–2 times per week | 173/884 (19.6) | 0.62 (0.49–0.79)*** | 0.71 (0.54–0.93)* | ||
| 3 or more days per week | 75/696 (10.8) | 0.31 (0.23–0.41)*** | 0.48 (0.34–0.67)*** | ||
| Meditation | Never | 241/1058 (22.8) | <0.001 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
| Less than once per week | 99/493 (20.1) | 0.85 (0.66–1.11) | 0.86 (0.64–1.17) | ||
| 1–4 times per week | 56/440 (12.7) | 0.49 (0.36–0.68)*** | 0.52 (0.36–0.75)*** | ||
| 5 or more times per week | 29/227 (12.8) | 0.50 (0.33–0.75)** | 0.47 (0.29–0.75)** | ||
| Social support | 6 or more | 40/299 (13.4) | <0.001 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
| 2–5 | 215/1316 (16.3) | 1.26 (0.88–1.82) | 1.11 (0.74–1.66) | ||
| 1 | 134/475 (28.2) | 2.54 (1.73–3.75)*** | 2.42 (1.55–3.77)*** | ||
| None | 34/111 (30.6) | 2.86 (1.70–4.82)*** | 2.43 (1.32–4.47)** | ||
| Body Mass Index | Normal | 176/1183 (14.9) | <0.001 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
| Underweight | 16/92 (17.4) | 1.21 (0.69–2.11) | 0.97 (0.50–1.88) | ||
| Overweight | 113/504 (22.4) | 1.65 (1.27–2.15)*** | 1.23 (0.91–1.67) | ||
| Obese | 116/421 (27.6) | 2.18 (1.67–2.84)*** | 1.47 (1.08–2.01)* | ||
| Dietary habits | Upper (fourth) quartile | 44/541 (8.1) | <0.001 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
| Third quartile | 75/488 (15.4) | 2.05 (1.38–3.04)*** | 1.65 (1.07–2.54)* | ||
| Second quartile | 116/502 (23.1) | 3.39 (2.34–4.92)*** | 2.25 (1.48–3.41)*** | ||
| Lower (first) quartile | 150/499 (30.1) | 4.86 (3.38–6.98)*** | 2.73 (1.81–4.11)*** | ||
| Medication | No DMD | 187/1094 (17.1) | .004 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
| Interferon | 104/424 (24.5) | 1.58 (1.120–2.07)** | 1.47 (1.07–2.02)* | ||
| DMD not IFN | 138/706 (19.5) | 1.18 (0.92–1.05) | 1.20 (0.90–1.60) |
AOR: Adjusted odds ratios of screening positive for depression adjusted for years since diagnosis, number of comorbidities, level of disability, clinically significant fatigue, age, gender, marital status and level of education.
* < 0.05, ** < 0.01, *** < 0.001.
^ PHQ-2 score ≥3. Bold denotes statistically significant.