FIGURE 1.

Whole organism energy dynamics and the diabetic phenotype. Glucose (blue arrows) is absorbed into the bloodstream from the duodenum. Glucose is sensed by the β-cells of the pancreas that respond by secreting insulin into the bloodstream (orange arrows). Insulin triggers adipose and muscle cells to take glucose out of the bloodstream and promotes energy storage. Insulin also modulates adipocytokine secretion (green arrows). In the liver, insulin promotes glucose uptake and inhibition of gluconeogenesis and promotes lipogenesis and FFA secretion (red arrows). Glucose, insulin, adipocytokines, and FFA all act on responsive organs, including the brain, eye, heart, kidney, and circulatory system, to promote/inhibit a variety of processes and responses. In the diabetic phenotype, all of the tissues and organs of the organism become affected due to a disconnect between sugar metabolism and insulin-dependent signal transduction.