Table 5.

Maternal and fetal consequences of hypovitaminosis and hypervitaminosis A, D, E and K (adapted from Gaudet et al⁷)

Fat-soluble vitamin	Maternal risks of deficiency	Maternal risks of excess	Fetal risks of deficiency	Fetal risks of excess
A	Follicular hyperkeratosis Impaired resistance to infection Night blindness Xerophthalmia Preeclampsia	Hyperostosis Hepatotoxicity Alopecia Increased cerebrospinal fluid pressure Hypercalcaemia	Ophthalmic defects	Neural tube defects Craniofacial, central nervous system, cardiac and thymic malformations
D	Osteomalacia	Hypercalcaemia	Hypocalcaemia Rickets	Aortic stenosis Calcium deposition in brain and other organs
E	Ophthalmoplegia Peripheral neuropathy Hyporeflexia Decreased proprioception Ataxia	Bleeding Impaired leucocyte function	Low birth weight	None documented
K	Bleeding disorders Possible effects on bone density	None documented	Neonatal bleeding Increased risk of spontaneous abortion	None documented