Table 4.
Emission rates in g kg−1 dry matter of VOCs and other compounds proposed by Akagi et al. (2011) for modelling emissions from vegetation combustion
| Compound emitted | Tropical forests | Savannah | Crop residues | Boreal forests | Temperate forest |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Carbon dioxide (CO2) | 1643 (58) | 1686 (38) | 1585 (100) | 1489 (121) | 1637 (71) |
| Carbon monoxide (CO) | 93 (27) | 63 (17) | 102 (33) | 127 (45) | 89 (32) |
| Nitrogen oxides (NOx as NO) | 2.55 (1.40) | 3.9 (0.80) | 3.11 (1.57) | 0.90 (0.69) | 2.51 (1.02) |
| Nitrous acid (HONO) | 1.18 (0.20) | – | 0.16 (0.07) | 0.52 (0.15) | 0.52 (0.15) |
| Sulphur dioxide (SO2) | 0.40 (0.19) | 0.48 (0.27) | – | – | – |
| Ammonia (NH3) | 1.33 (1.21) | 0.52 (0.35) | 2.17 (1.27) | 2.72 (2.32) | 0.78 (0.82) |
| Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) | 0.42 (0.26) | 0.41 (0.15) | 0.29 (0.38) | 1.52 (0.82) | 0.73 (0.19) |
| Methane (CH4) | 5.07 (1.98) | 1.94 (0.85) | 5.82 (3.56) | 5.96 (3.14) | 3.92 (2.39) |
| Alkanes | |||||
| Ethane (C2H6) | 0.71 (0.28) | 0.66 (0.41) | 0.91 (0.49) | 1.79 (1.14) | 1.12 (0.67) |
| Propane (C3H8) | 0.126 (0.060) | 0.10 (0.067) | 0.28 (0.15) | 0.44 | 0.26 (0.11) |
| n-Butane (C4H10) | 0.038 (0.023) | 0.016 (0.013) | 0.072 (0.036) | 0.12 | 0.083 (0.10) |
| i-Butane (C4H10) | 0.011 (0.009) | 0.0043 (0.0027) | 0.025 (0.013) | 0.042 | – |
| n-Pentane (C5H12) | 8.03 × 10−3 | 0.0032 (0.0032) | 0.025 (0.012) | 0.085 | – |
| i-Pentane (C5H12) | 0.010 (0.010) | 0.0022 (0.0032) | 0.020 (0.012) | 0.038 | – |
| Cyclopentane (C5H10) | – | – | 0.0019 (0.0012) | – | – |
| 2 + 3-Methylpentane (C6H14) | – | – | – | 0.036 | – |
| n-Hexane (C6H14) | 0.01 | 0.013 (0.0074) | – | 0.055 | – |
| Alkenes | |||||
| Ethylene (C2H4) | 1.06 (0.37) | 0.82 (0.35) | 1.46 (0.59) | 1.42 (0.43) | 1.12 (0.35) |
| Propylene (C3H6) | 0.64 (0.43) | 0.79 (0.56) | 0.68 (0.37) | 1.13 (0.60) | 0.95 (0.54) |
| 1-Butene (C4H8) | 0.079 (0.024) | 0.043 (0.022) | 0.134 (0.060) | 0.16 | – |
| i-Butene (C4H8) | 0.11 (0.051) | 0.024 (0.0051) | 0.117 (0.060) | 0.11 | – |
| trans-2-Butene (C4H8) | 0.029 (0.013) | 0.011 (0.0055) | 0.057 (0.030) | 0.04 | – |
| cis-2-Butene (C4H8) | 0.024 (0.010) | 0.0084 (0.0043) | 0.043 (0.023) | 0.03 | – |
| trans-2-Pentene (C5H10) | 3.30 × 10−3 | 0.0045 (0.0028) | – | – | – |
| cis-2-Pentene (C5H10) | 1.90 × 10−3 | 0.0025 (0.0018) | – | – | – |
| 3-Methyl-1-butene (C5H10) | 3.80 × 10−3 | 0.0051 (0.0034) | – | – | – |
| 2-Methyl-2-butene (C5H10) | 4.00 × 10−3 | 0.0048 (0.0035) | – | – | – |
| 2-Methyl-1-butene (C5H10) | 4.40 × 10−3 | 0.0059 (0.0037) | – | – | – |
| 2-Methyl-1-pentene (C6H12) | 2.80 × 10−3 | 0.0035 (0.0021) | – | – | – |
| Dienes trienes and terpenes | |||||
| Propadiene (C3H4) | 0.016 (0.006) | 0.012 (0.005) | – | – | – |
| 1,3-Butadiene (C4H6) | 0.039 | 0.052 (0.028) | 0.151 (0.072) | 0.14 | – |
| Isoprene (C5H8) | 0.13 (0.056) | 0.039 (0.027) | 0.38 (0.16) | 0.15 | – |
| α-Pinene (C10H16) | – | – | – | 1.64 | – |
| β-Pinene (C10H16) | – | – | – | 1.45 | – |
| Alkynes | |||||
| Acetylene (C2H2) | 0.44 (0.35) | 0.24 (0.10) | 0.27 (0.08) | 0.18 (0.10) | 0.29 (0.10) |
| Propyne (C3H4) | – | – | – | 0.059 | – |
| Arenes and substituted arenes | |||||
| Benzene (C6H6) | 0.39 (0.16) | 0.20 (0.084) | 0.15 (0.04) | 1.11 | – |
| Toluene (C7H8) | 0.26 (0.13) | 0.080 (0.058) | 0.19 (0.06) | 0.48 | – |
| Xylenes (C8H10) | 0.11 (0.082) | 0.014 (0.024) | – | 0.18 | – |
| Ethylbenzene (C8H10) | 0.050 (0.036) | 0.006 (0.010) | – | 0.051 | – |
| n-Propylbenzene (C9H12) | – | – | – | 0.018 | – |
| 3-Ethyltoluene (C9H12) | – | – | – | 0.024 | – |
| 2-Ethyltoluene (C9H12) | – | – | – | 0.011 | – |
| 4-Ethyltoluene (C9H12) | – | – | – | 0.015 | – |
| 1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene (C9H12) | – | – | – | 0.051 | – |
| 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene (C9H12) | – | – | – | 0.03 | – |
| 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene (C9H12) | – | – | – | 5.86 × 10−3 | – |
| Phenol (C6H5OH) | 0.45 (0.088) | 0.52 (0.36) | 0.52 (0.14) | 2.96 | 0.33 (0.38) |
| Aldehydes | |||||
| Formaldehyde (HCHO) | 1.73 (1.22) | 0.73 (0.62) | 2.08 (0.84) | 1.86 (1.26) | 2.27 (1.13) |
| Glycolaldehyde (C2H4O2) | 2.84 | 0.81 (0.38) | 2.01 (0.38) | 0.77 | 0.25 (0.45) |
| Acetaldehyde (C2H4O) | 1.55 (0.75) | 0.57 (0.30) | 1.24 (0.28) | – | – |
| Acrolein (C3H4O) | 0.65 (0.23) | – | – | – | – |
| Propanal (C3H6O) | 0.10 (0.026) | – | – | – | – |
| Methyl propanal (C4H8O) | 0.18 (0.075) | – | – | – | – |
| Methacrolein (C4H6O) | 0.15 (0.045) | – | – | 0.087 | – |
| Crotonaldehyde (C4H6O) | 0.24 (0.068) | – | – | – | – |
| Hexanal (C6H12O) | 0.01 (0.005) | – | – | – | – |
| Furaldehydes | 0.29 (0.0010) | – | – | – | – |
| Ketones | |||||
| Acetone (C3H6O) | 0.63 (0.17) | 0.16 (0.13) | 0.45 (0.07) | 0.75 | – |
| Acetol (C3H6O2) | 1.13 (0.12) | 0.45 (0.24) | 3.77 (0.91) | – | – |
| Methyl ethyl ketone (C4H8O) | 0.50 (0.21) | – | – | 0.22 | – |
| Methyl vinyl ketone (C4H6O) | 0.39 (0.11) | – | – | 0.2 | – |
| 2,3-Butanedione (C4H6O2) | 0.73 (0.22) | – | – | – | – |
| 2-Pentanone (C5H10O) | 0.08 (0.024) | – | – | – | – |
| 3-Pentanone (C5H10O | 0.03 (0.011) | – | – | – | – |
| Alcohols | |||||
| Methanol (CH3OH) | 2.43 (0.80) | 1.18 (0.41) | 3.29 (1.38) | 2.82 (1.62) | 1.93 (1.38) |
| Ethanol (C2H5OH) | – | – | – | 0.055 | – |
| Carboxylic acids | |||||
| Formic acid (HCO2H) | 0.79 (0.66) | 0.21 (0.096) | 1.00 (0.49) | 0.57 (0.46) | 0.35 (0.33) |
| Acetic acid (CH3CO2H) | 3.05 (0.90) | 3.55 (1.47) | 5.59 (2.55) | 4.41 (2.66) | 1.97 (1.66) |
| Esters | |||||
| Methyl vinyl ether (C3H6O) | – | 0.16 (0.045) | 0.08 (0.01) | – | – |
| Heterocyclic aromatics 5 rings | |||||
| Furan (C4H4O) | 0.41 (0.10) | 0.17 (0.058) | 0.11 (0.04) | 0.80 (0.50) | 0.20 (0.21) |
| 3-Methylfuran (C5H6O) | 0.59 (0.20) | – | – | – | – |
| 2-Methylfuran (C5H6O) | 0.08 (0.028) | – | – | – | – |
| Other substituted furans | 1.21 (0.016) | – | – | – | – |
| Pyrrole (C4H5N) | 0.12 (0.038) | – | – | – | – |
| Alkyl nitriles | |||||
| Acetonitrile (CH3CN) | 0.41 (0.10) | 0.11 (0.058) | 0.21 (0.06) | 0.61 | – |
| Propenenitrile (C3H3N) | 0.04 (0.01) | 0.051 (0.022) | 0.03 (0.002) | – | – |
| Propanenitrile (C3H5N) | 0.09 | 0.031 (0.014) | 0.06 (0.002) | – | – |
| Sulphur compounds | |||||
| Dimethyl sulphide (C2H6S) | 1.35 × 10−3 | 0.0013 (0.0011) | – | 4.65 × 10−3 | – |
| Carbonyl Sulphide (OCS) | 0.025 | – | – | 0.46 (0.47) | – |
| Alkyl halides | |||||
| Chloromethane (CH3Cl) | 0.053 (0.038) | 0.055 (0.036) | – | 0.059 | – |
| Trichloromethane (CHCl3) | 2.94 × 10−4 | 0.012 (0.020) | – | – | – |
Data in brackets are the observed variations.
VOC, volatile organic compound.