Table 1. Baseline demographics, clinical characteristics and assessments for entire cohort and the four intervention groupsa.
| Variables | Total cohort (n=222) |
Intervention
groups |
P-valueb | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Physical activity, n=42 | Cognitive stimulation, n=51 | Combined, n=44 | Control, n=35 | |||
| Age | 67.60±5.42 | 67.36±5.09 | 66.61±4.82 | 67.18±5.33 | 69.06±5.59 | 0.187 |
| Females, n (%) | 153 (68.92) | 29 (69.00) | 32 (62.70) | 29 (65.90) | 26 (74.30) | 0.716 |
| Education (PG), n (%) | 35 (15.98) | 5 (11.90) | 11 (22.00) | 6 (13.60) | 6 (17.10) | 0.094 |
| Retired, n (%) | 167 (75.57) | 34 (81.00) | 35 (68.60) | 32 (72.70) | 29 (82.90) | 0.531 |
| High blood pressure, n (%) | 75 (34.09) | 11 (26.20) | 16 (31.40) | 14 (31.80) | 16 (45.70) | 0.318 |
| Heart attack, n (%) | 8 (03.62) | 0 (00.00) | 0 (00.00) | 2 (04.50) | 3 (08.60) | 0.066 |
| Diabetes, n (%) | 26 (11.76) | 6 (14.30) | 5 (09.80) | 4 (09.10) | 4 (11.40) | 0.589 |
| Visual defects, n (%) | 132 (59.73) | 20 (47.60) | 34 (66.70) | 28 (63.60) | 19 (54.30) | 0.242 |
| History of falls, n (%) | 15 (06.79) | 4 (09.50) | 5 (09.80) | 3 (06.80) | 2 (05.70) | 0.879 |
| Thyroid, n (%) | 34 (15.38) | 10 (23.80) | 3 (05.90) | 7 (15.90) | 6 (17.10) | 0.112 |
| Arthritis, n (%) | 91 (41.18) | 14 (33.30) | 22 (43.10) | 18 (40.90) | 11 (31.40) | 0.624 |
| Joint replacement, n (%) | 20 (09.05) | 2 (04.80) | 5 (09.80) | 4 (09.10) | 1 (02.90) | 0.539 |
| Head injury, n (%) | 10 (04.52) | 1 (02.40) | 4 (07.80) | 1 (02.30) | 1 (02.90) | 0.447 |
| Depression, n (%) | 37 (16.82) | 7 (17.10) | 10 (19.60) | 3 (06.80) | 5 (14.30) | 0.339 |
| Anxiety, n (%) | 31 (14.09) | 5 (12.20) | 5 (09.80) | 6 (13.60) | 6 (17.10) | 0.792 |
| Smoking, n (%) | 12 (05.45) | 1 (02.40) | 3 (05.90) | 3 (06.80) | 2 (05.90) | 0.806 |
| Premorbid IQ (CCRT) | 38.13±6.46 | 37.29±6.80 | 38.39±6.33 | 40.25±4.40 | 38.26±6.53 | 0.149 |
| BMI (n=212) | 27.28±4.81 | 26.60±4.42 | 28.08±4.57 | 27.00±5.10 | 26.51±4.16 | 0.373 |
| IPAQ (n=216) | 4431.63±4536.96 | 4432.11±5064.37 | 4294.36±4042.81 | 4749.62±5326.22 | 3673.00±3157.38 | 0.773 |
| APOE ɛ4 carriers, n (%) | 65 (29.41) | 14 (33.30) | 18 (35.30) | 17 (38.60) | 3 (08.60) | 0.018c |
| Physical fitness assessments | ||||||
| Total sum of strength (kg) (n=211) | 191.39±58.18 | 193.81±53.51 | 205.11±63.14 | 204.43±57.01 | 168.24±54.03 | 0.062 |
| Distance (n=213) | 470.52±138.01 | 501.19±129.28 | 466.38±114.62 | 485.68±136.29 | 481.76±143.58 | 0.659 |
| Borg's Scale (n=212) | 12.02±2.24 | 12.32±2.24 | 11.55±2.07 | 12.50±2.29 | 11.03±2.04 | 0.011c |
| Assessment score | ||||||
| CAMCOG-R | 96.17±4.20 | 96.69±4.06 | 96.73±3.34 | 96.84±3.65 | 95.97±4.08 | 0.743 |
| MMSE | 28.64±1.43 | 28.60±1.47 | 28.80±1.18 | 28.59±1.40 | 28.80±1.26 | 0.785 |
| RAVLT: IR | 47.02±9.13 | 48.10±11.63 | 46.47±8.02 | 47.30±8.76 | 46.17±7.84 | 0.778 |
| RAVLT: STDR | 9.56±2.88 | 9.71±3.33 | 9.61±2.37 | 9.48±3.15 | 9.43±2.70 | 0.971 |
| RAVLT: LTDR | 9.14±3.35 | 9.26±3.88 | 9.24±2.45 | 8.84±3.47 | 9.29±2.92 | 0.905 |
| COWAT | 41.69±12.12 | 42.26±13.69 | 41.75±10.80 | 44.57±11.13 | 40.09±11.50 | 0.398 |
| Detection | 1.49±0.15 | 1.51±0.12 | 1.49±0.11 | 1.45±0.23 | 1.50±0.12 | 0.317 |
| One back memory | 1.31±0.18 | 1.32±0.19 | 1.30±0.19 | 1.33±0.14 | 1.33±0.17 | 0.798 |
| Groton maze learning | 68.31±28.35 | 66.02±25.81 | 66.55±27.85 | 66.30±25.40 | 65.00±17.80 | 0.993 |
| IS: visual memory | 0.05±2.02 | −0.39±1.87 | −0.04±2.02 | 0.34±2.18 | 0.36±1.98 | 0.290 |
| HADS: anxiety | 4.52±3.25 | 4.14±3.43 | 4.27±3.17 | 3.61±2.69 | 5.31±3.27 | 0.124 |
| HADS: depression | 2.82±2.28 | 2.24±1.86 | 2.84±1.90 | 2.20±1.89 | 3.03±2.12 | 0.127 |
| MFQ | 289.42±52.39 | 297.55±49.41 | 293.59±50.57 | 290.82±52.25 | 286.57±48.93 | 0.807 |
| SF-36: PC | 71.31±17.04 | 75.29±16.52 | 73.53±17.88 | 75.42±12.86 | 66.05±16.51 | 0.045c |
| SF-36: MC | 76.86±15.85 | 78.42±15.75 | 80.88±12.05 | 80.50±13.00 | 73.46±16.42 | 0.090 |
Abbreviations: APOE, apolipoprotein E; BMI, body mass index; Camcog-R, Cambridge cognitive assessment-Revised; CCRT, Cambridge contextual reading test; COWAT, controlled oral word association test; HADS, hospital anxiety and depression scale; IPAQ, international physical activity questionnaire; IQ, intelligence quotient; IR, immediate recall; IS, index score; LTDR, long-term delayed recall; MFQ, memory functioning questionnaire; MMSE, mini-mental state examination; PG, post graduation; RAVLT, Rey auditory verbal learning test; SF36:PC, short form 36: physical component; SF36:MC, short form 36: mental component; STDR, short-term delayed recall.
Values are expressed as mean±s.d. unless otherwise indicated.
For all continuous variables, an analysis of variance was used and for all categorical variables, a chi-square test was used.
Indicates the group differences significant at the 0.05 level.