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. 2014 Dec 23;5:444. doi: 10.3389/fgene.2014.00444

FIGURE 2.

FIGURE 2

Carcinogenesis mediated by steroid hormone like molecules derived from S. haematobium and O. viverrini. Eggs of S. haematobium derived catechol-estrogens and DNA-adducts (left; Botelho et al., 2013), and O. viverrini derived oxysterols (right; Vale et al., 2013), likely interact with the chromosomes of target cells inducing DNA apurinic sites that eventually escape the DNA repair mechanisms leading to mutations. These mutations ultimately would transform the target cell, leading to hyperplasia and ultimately to neoplasia, i.e., squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder [bottom left, brief description adapted from Santos et al. (2014)] and liver fluke induced cholangiocarcinoma (CCA; bottom right). Hematoxylin and eosin stained section of human intrahepatic bile duct/liver, cholangiocarcinoma at bottom of image (star) and an adult O. viverrini liver fluke (arrow) at top. Image contributed by co-author Banchob Sripa. Human metaphase chromosomes – image from Tang et al. (2013).